When television was first introduced, radio comedian Fred Allen quipped, “Television is the triumph of equipment over people.” There are times when cast and crew members might indeed feel that equipment has triumphed, such as when the camera focus goes out and the graphics generator crashes and the audio cable develops a short—all in one day. Yet as important as equipment is, it is the people behind and in front of that equipment who are the deciding factor in the quality of any TV production.

This chapter gives an overview of the duties of the various people involved in production. While many of these positions are needed for both studio and field production, this chapter discusses the tasks required for studio production, with the assumption that the program is live or recorded live with few, if any, stops. Such a production requires a large crew because many things must be done all at once.

The cast and crew for studio productions vary from place to place and time to time. Union facilities most likely have more people than nonunionized shops, where people often undertake several functions. Other factors that affect crew positions are the degree of the facility’s automation (e.g., robotic cameras) and the health of the economy (e.g., hiring vs. lay-off mode).

The crew positions in this chapter are somewhat standard in the business. Each crew position is discussed in terms of what that person needs to do before the actual production process begins; during rehearsal; while the program is being recorded, aired, or streamed live; and after production is over. Because many of these positions are involved with producing, directing, or operating specific pieces of equipment, the chapters that follow will give more detail about these jobs.

You and all the others involved in a production must undertake certain techniques to accomplish the tasks at hand. A technical director must know which buttons and levers to push to dissolve from camera 1 to camera 2; an audio operator must know how to check meters to make sure sound is being recorded; an actor must memorize lines. But you also need the disciplines that ensure a smooth production. TV production involves a great deal of “hurry up and wait,” and cast and crew members need to be at the ready to undertake their duties when the need arises.

Producers

Producers are in charge of the overall organization of a production, be it a network comedy, a local station newscast, a cable TV sportscast, a webisode, or a corporate training video. As a producer, you are responsible for seeing that all the elements of a program are in the right place at the right time. (See Figure 2.1.) Have the actors been cast? Has the fog machine been ordered? Where will the cast and crew eat? Producers often initiate a project and also see that it is finished on time and on budget.

Before Production Begins

As a producer your most intensive work is during preproduction. A producer is usually the person who comes up with an idea and obtains funding. The producer then carefully plans everything so that production (shooting) and postproduction (editing) progress smoothly. You oversee the script and the budget (see Chapter 3), make sure all the necessary personnel are hired (often in conjunction with the director), attend to legal matters, and see that all facilities and equipment are available. News producers decide what stories are going to be on their newscasts. In general, a producer handles the logistics of a production, while a director makes the creative and aesthetic decisions.

During Rehearsal and Recording

For most student productions, a producer is present during rehearsal and recording to give the director moral support and to handle last-minute details. On the professional level, a producer’s role during rehearsal and recording varies according to the nature of the project, the relationship between the producer and director, and how smoothly things are going. If a drama is shot outside the country, the producer may stay home and not witness a single day of shooting; if a talk show is recorded in the same building where the producer works, the producer may stop in and welcome the guests. Producers are usually in the control room during the entire broadcast of a live news program because many decisions must be made at the last minute, especially those that deal with breaking news.

When producers and directors work together frequently and harmoniously, the producer comes to trust the director and may never appear on the set. However, a producer exerts more control if the director’s ability is uncertain. A director who is still shooting 2 days after production was supposed to have finished can most assuredly expect a visit from the producer. So can someone who is spending money at a rapid clip.

After the Production

If a program needs editing, the producer’s role will vary just as it does during production. A producer who does not work at the editing facility and who trusts the director may never appear in the editing room. Still, the producer almost always looks at a rough cut of an edited program (either in person with the director and editor, or by viewing a copy online, or on Blu-ray or DVD) and gives opinions on possible changes. A student producer is usually more involved.

In addition to overseeing the editing, a producer handles the social and legal aftermath of the production. Have the guests been sent thank-you e-mails? Have the music copyright fees been paid? The producer also oversees the distribution and promotion of the program and evaluates it, along with the process, so that things can operate more smoothly (or as smoothly) next time.

Directors

A director is like a symphony conductor. The crew members play their “instruments” (camera, audio board, switcher, etc.). The director coordinates them, calls the shots of who “plays” what when (“take camera 2” when the actor performs a line, etc.), and sets the timing and pace of the program (see Chapter 4). Sometimes, the director helps “compose the music”—write the script—much like the notes of a musical score function as the plan of a symphony. In other situations, you—the director—have the script handed to you, and you “interpret” the production from there. (For further information, visit the website for the Directors Guild of America. The guild seeks to protect directorial teams’ legal and artistic rights, contend for their creative freedom, and strengthen their ability to develop meaningful and credible careers.)

Before Production Begins

Together with the producer, your first concern as a director is to determine the purpose of the script. The producer-director team asks: What is the objective of the show? How should the audience react? What might be the best overall feel and image of the program? What kinds of sets, lights, and graphics would be most effective?

Next, check the script for rough timing. Is it the proper length, or does it need to be cut or lengthened? Then the script should be put in its final television production format (two-column, sitcom, etc.) and duplicated for all who need it. In some situations, such as news programs, the script appears on computer monitors (TelePrompTers) in the studio and control room, but most cast and crew members still need printed copies so they can make their own markings related to their responsibilities.

Once you are comfortable with the script, you are ready to start specific planning. In the case of remote coverage, you have to scout the location, often in conjunction with other crew members. In other situations, you may have to rent studio facilities. Local TV stations own studios that are used for station news and other programs. In most academic situations, the studio is assigned to you for a definite period of time.

As a student, you may not have to be concerned with securing personnel. The technical crew may be assigned from your class or from some other participating class. On certain occasions, however, you may be involved in selecting specific individuals for particular crew assignments. In the professional world, directors often have little say about crew. For example, local TV station management may hire crew members who work during all the newscasts, public affairs shows, and remote productions. The director of the 5:00 p.m. news may not have a say as to who the members of the crew are. But for sitcoms, reality shows, movies, and many other forms of programming, the director selects the crew during preproduction.

Casting for actors or other performers may be done informally in the academic setting. You may work through the drama department, or you may prevail upon friends or classmates. In securing volunteer talent, make certain that you receive a firm commitment; many a student production have been ruined because a friend or casual acquaintance backed out of a production at the last moment. In professional situations, of course, casting is quite an involved and formal process (see Chapter 4).

Next comes the job of pulling the project together. In any kind of major production, the director holds one or more conferences or meetings involving the chief production personnel. (See Figure 2.2.) You must make sure that all the preproduction elements are requested and constructed. The lighting and staging plans are developed in this preproduction phase. If special costumes or props need to be ordered or fabricated, initiate the process now. Music and other special audio or video material must be either created or acquired through research and downloading.

The entire preproduction process takes place within a tight interlocking schedule of checkpoints and deadlines. Many production elements cannot proceed until other items are taken care of first. The costumes must arrive before the exterior video can be shot. The set must be designed before set pieces can be constructed.

In the midst of this activity, you must also prepare your shooting script for the day of production. What pace do you want to achieve? What images and sounds do you want to create to achieve your purpose? You should mark your copy of the script indicating which cameras you are going to use for which shots and what instructions you are going to give cast and crew (see Chapter 4). The director is the final interpreter of a story, and this is all part of your script analysis.

During Rehearsal and Recording

The director is in charge during rehearsal and recording. During rehearsals you must make sure everyone behind and in front of the camera knows what they are to do. Never assume that people can read your mind. Some programs, such as dramas, need extensive rehearsals because everything must take place in a very precise manner. Other programs, such as talk shows, require less rehearsal. In fact, rehearsing a talk show too thoroughly can ruin its spontaneity because the participants know what everyone is going to say. For these types of programs, it is best to discuss only the general topics and the logistical aspects, such as when you will be cutting away for commercials.

After rehearsal, you are ready to start calling shots (i.e., deciding what each camera should show and then making sure the appropriate shots get recorded). For a first-time director, anxiety at this stage is normal. However, regardless of how you are feeling inside, try not to let it show. The composure or anxiety you communicate to the crew will surely be returned to you.

Your commands depend on the type of production, but they usually consist of the following: calling up the music and graphics for the opening credits; making sure the cameras are on shots you will need as the program progresses; calling for the proper camera to be on at the proper time; bringing in prerecorded video or audio material as it is needed; and executing the closing credits.

During the program, always be looking ahead by two or three minutes. What possible problems lie down the road? Did the mic boom get repositioned properly? Are the closing credits ready to roll? It’s a good idea to delegate many of these “look-ahead” duties to your associate director, but you, as director, have the ultimate responsibility to make sure everything goes as planned.

After the Production

When the program is finished, don’t let either talent or crew leave their positions until a bit of the program is played back to make sure it recorded. Then use the studio address to thank the crew and talent. Even if you are feeling extremely tense or relieved, keep your composure. Make certain you and your crew clear the studio and control room of all scripts, notes, props, and everything else connected with your production.

If postproduction editing is in order, your job is far from done (see Chapter 11). If all you need to do is insert a clean shot to cover one bad blunder, you may be able to do it right away. If you require a major editing job of assembling video pieces from several different sources, you will need to schedule editing sessions.

Associate Directors

The associate director (sometimes referred to as the assistant director, or AD)¹ helps the director with various tasks. The AD’s duties differ from program to program, depending on the philosophy and work style of the director. One director may want you to set up all the camera shots so he or she can concentrate on last-minute details, aesthetic decisions, and the actual takes. (See Figure 2.3.) Other directors want you to sit nearby to remind them of what is coming up next. If a show is performed in front of an audience, but the scenes are not shot in order, the director may ask the AD to prepare recorded material compiled from rehearsals that can be shown to the audience members so they understand how the story progresses.

In just about every kind of studio operation, however, one of the AD’s primary jobs is timing the production. You time individual segments during rehearsals, get an overall timing of the program, and then take charge of pacing the program—speeding up or stretching as required—during the actual recording. You also give timing cues during production so the director, crew, and talent know how much time remains.

Before Production Begins

The AD works with the director well in advance of the actual production period by attending production meetings, working with talent, and assembling props and other materials. You may be in charge of the rest of the crew—making certain that everyone is present, for example. In nonunion productions, you may need to arrange substitute crew members or even talent to ensure that every position is covered.

During Rehearsal and Recording

During rehearsals, the director gives notes regarding production issues that need attention before the actual take. You jot down critique notes as the director spots problems. Additionally, you should make notes of items that might escape the director’s attention. If you spot something major, such as a missing prop, you should call that to the director’s attention before the rehearsal proceeds. Minor items, such as a distracting shadow on the talent’s shoulder, are simply written down to be cleaned up later.

You should be especially concerned with script changes. Also, if any segments are going to be recorded out of order, you should note any continuity problems that might arise. For example, if a vase of flowers is needed for the first segment and is removed during the second segment but is needed again for the third segment, make a note to double-check that the flowers are returned before shooting segment three.

Also use the rehearsal period to time as much of the program as possible, including individual segments, inserts, and opening and closing elements. All of these help you with crucial timing during the actual production. For example, the final segment of a program might be essential to understanding the entire program and need to be shown in a specific way. You can time that segment during rehearsal and then backtime (count backward from the end of the program). Thus, you know exactly when the preceding segment must end so that the final segment can be completed properly. Then, during production, you can give time signals to the talent regarding when they should wind up the next-to-last segment and begin the final segment.

After the rehearsal and before the actual take, it is your job to make certain that the director follows through on all production notes that were jotted down. At this point, the director often has a meeting with the entire crew to go over what needs to be changed before the program is actually recorded or broadcast. This meeting is based largely on your notes.

Next, you must make sure that everybody has received all the script changes. If one person does not get a crucial script change, that omission will surely lead to a mistake. Additionally, you should remind the director of how much time is remaining before recording is scheduled to start or before the live program goes on the air.

Just prior to production, you “read down” the clock, letting the director know how many minutes or seconds until air or until recording is to begin. In the final ten seconds or so, as you count down, “Ten, nine, eight … ,” the director begins his or her first sequence of commands to open the program.

Once you are on the air or recording, follow the script and remain alert to any and all potential problems—ready to call major troubles to the director’s attention. If the program has any prerecorded segments or spots, you work closely with the recordist or playback operator to know what machine will play what piece, to ensure that each segment or spot is cued properly, and to make sure each roll-in plays at the correct second for the director to call for it and the technical director to switch to it. Keep in mind that your primary job is handling timing. You need some way of keeping track of the various timing notes and reminders. The digital clock readouts available in most control rooms are essential, but some ADs also use stop watches and timing sheets (see Chapter 4).

As AD, you are also in charge of making sure the talent receives proper time cues. Either directly or through the director, you tell the stage manager (aka floor manager) when to give each time signal to the talent. Time signals are given in terms of time remaining. Thus, as you approach the end of a program, you have the stage manager signal the performer that there are “5 minutes remaining,” “1 minute to go,” “30 seconds left,” and so on.

Also during the production, you take notes for postproduction editing—both those items that the director points out (a missed shot, an opportunity to insert a reaction shot) and the items you notice that need to be corrected. Finally, you must be ready to take over at any time. The AD is the standby director. Should the director be unable to complete the program, you assume responsibility for calling the shots.

After the Production

Once the production is completed, you still have a few obligations. You need to debrief the director on any errors that occurred. You should also help clean up the control room of extra scripts, notes, and other materials.

A crucial postproduction job of the AD in many situations is the final editing session. You might need to set up an editing schedule with the director. You might continue as the director’s right-hand assistant in these assignments, or, depending on the nature of the production arrangements, you might be in charge of the postproduction editing session by following through with the director’s instructions.

Some productions do not employ an AD, mainly due to budget concerns. The director performs all the duties usually assigned to the AD. If a production is simple and repetitive, this is manageable, but not having an AD opens the door for errors that would not occur if the director had an assistant taking up some of the workload and double-checking the program’s needs.

Stage Managers

The stage manager (also called the floor manager or the floor director)² is the director’s key assistant in charge of what is happening in the studio. When you assume this role, your main job is to communicate with the talent. The director and associate director are in the control room during the actual production and give you instructions that you relay to the talent mainly through hand signals. (See Figure 2.4.)

Before Production Begins

How much you do before production begins depends, to some extent, on how experienced the talent is. Anchors who read the news every day don’t need much instruction from the floor manager. When the talent is new to television, though, you should attend to their needs. Can you offer some advice to keep them calm? What production mysteries should be explained?

This last point is important with inexperienced performers. Because they are not tied into the intercom, they are not aware of what is going on in the control room most of the time. Explain to the talent that a delay is due to a computer malfunction, for example, and not because the talent sat in the wrong chair, or that the crew is laughing at the AD’s story and not at the talent’s clothing.

Prior to production, you should assist the talent with the director’s blocking. Where is the talent to stand for the demonstration? What kinds of special cues are needed? All these details should be considered carefully so that both you and the talent know what to do during the actual recording. In addition, you should demonstrate the various hand signals (stand by to start, begin talking, talk to this camera, cut, etc.) to inexperienced talent and decide exactly what time cues will be given. (See Figure 2.5.)

In addition to communicating with talent, the stage manager also handles all production details on the studio floor. This area includes a variety of tasks:

• broadly supervising staging and lighting setups³
• directing studio traffic
• distributing scripts to everyone who needs them
• making sure props are in their right positions.

The stage manager exercises authority because every other floor position is concerned with the production from only one specific viewpoint. For example, the camera operator, the boom operator, and the lighting director all have their particular perspectives. Perhaps each of these three has selected the same spot on the floor to position a camera, a mic boom, and a light stand. It is up to you, working with the director and from a broader perspective, to coordinate others’ needs and decide what goes where.

During Rehearsal and Recording

During rehearsal, the stage manager should familiarize the talent with hand cues. Always be in a position where the talent can spot you easily. The performers should never have to turn their heads or search the studio with their eyes to find you. Often it is good to crouch below the camera that the talent is addressing. However, make sure you stay out of the way of the camera lens so your head or arm does not inadvertently pop up in the shot. During rehearsal, you should also make sure of what your other duties will be. Do you need to move a prop? Do you need to replenish a bowl of fruit?

Once the production begins, the stage manager is the primary contact for the talent. The studio door is shut, and the director and assistant director are in the control room. At this stage, your main job is to give hand cues to the talent and possibly move elements on the set, such as props. Remain extra alert for any problems, and double-check to ensure that all crew and talent are in their places. In general, you must guarantee that everything for the studio that was worked out during rehearsal is executed during production.

After the Production

When the broadcast or recording is over, the stage manager helps collect props and oversees the studio strike. Everything must be returned to where it belongs, ready for the next shoot. Before, during, and after the production, you are the pivotal individual in charge of the studio—the person who must take the initiative in getting things done.

As with the AD position, some studio productions do not employ a stage manager. Instead, the performers wear earphones that are part of the interruptible foldback (IFB) system (sometimes called interrupted foldback or feedback). With IFB, only certain audio elements can be “folded back” to the performer, such as the program audio, or the director or producer can give “feedback” to the performer directly, such as letting him or her know of a sudden change in the program. This makes things more difficult for both the director and the talent, who must listen to the director at the same time they are talking. Using an IFB is common for live-from-the-scene news reports where reporters can hear each other as well as those in a control room. Also, the camera operator in the field might be in communication with the control room and relay signals to the reporter. Many studio shoots, though, still use a stage manager as a communicator and overseer of the studio, even if the in-studio talent uses an IFB.

Camera Operators

Camera operators frame and compose the shots for the program based on instructions from the director. You must understand the operation of the camera thoroughly (see Chapter 5) to operate it efficiently and move it physically while keeping the image steady and in focus. Pay attention to how the camera interacts with the lighting so that the picture is neither overexposed nor underexposed and that no lights appear in the frame. In addition, you should also develop an aesthetic sense to compose pictures properly. The camera operator chooses what is seen in the shot and what is excluded (framing) and how the elements in the shot are seen (composition).

Most studio productions require three or more camera operators. If there is no stage manager, one of the camera operators may be asked to signal the talent when to start and stop. Some productions use robotic cameras, which are located in the studio but have no operators. One person in the control room or the studio handles all the cameras by working joysticks and dials to move and focus the cameras remotely.

Before Production Begins

Before the production, camera operators ready the cameras for operation. Often this involves wheeling the camera out from where it is stored; turning it on; taking a cap off the front of the lens; opening and adjusting a number of pan, tilt, and pedestal levers and knobs that allow the camera to move freely; and generally checking to make sure everything is working. (See Figure 2.6.)

Once all the lighting is set, you often need to make adjustments to the cameras so that the pictures are optimized for the lights. Sometimes, an engineer in the control room, usually referred to as a video operator (or shader), works a camera control unit (CCU) that handles the more technical adjustments for the cameras. For example, this person operates remote controls on the CCU that govern the relationship of each camera to the lighting, setting the black level and adjusting the iris.

During Rehearsal and Recording

Rehearsals are when you find out exactly what will be required and iron out any problems. If the program is not rehearsed, you should definitely meet with the director before recording or broadcast to find out what shots you will cover. Then, during the production, follow the instructions the director gives over the intercom.

Always think ahead to your next shot. Is the talent going to stand up, and, if so, have you unlocked the lever to tilt the camera up? Are you going to need to get out of the way of another camera operator who has to make a wide move? Are there any cables or other obstructions that will get in the way of your own camera move?

After the Production

After the production is over, put the cameras away properly. Usually this involves coiling the cable attached to the camera and moving the camera back to where it is stored. Cap the lens, and lock down all levers and knobs. It is not always necessary to turn the camera off. If it is going to be used again within a short period of time, it should be left on because turning the electronics off and on too frequently shortens a camera’s life.

Prompter Operators

Prompters (also called auto cues or TelePrompTers)⁴ are computerized mirror/monitor systems that allow the talent to see words of the script roll up in front of the camera lens. Usually all the cameras are equipped with a prompter so talent can turn from one camera to another and still see the same script. The viewer does not see this script, but the talent can read it while looking directly at the camera lens. Someone has to control the rate that the script crawls up the prompter so that it does not get either ahead of or behind the talent—that someone is the prompter operator. In many studios today, though, the talent—newscasters, interviewers, game-show and talk-show hosts—have out-of-sight foot pedals and control the prompter speed themselves.

Before Production Begins

Most prompters are Windows- or Mac-based, so whatever script is written for the show can be fed into the prompter computer without having to be retyped. If the script must be retyped, however, it is the prompter operator’s job to do that before the production begins. Even if the script does not need retyping, you should check it carefully to make sure it is formatted properly and does not contain anything that will confuse the talent. (See Figure 2.7.) Are stage directions included in such a way that the on-camera person might accidentally read them aloud? Are any commas missing that could cause the talent to stumble over words?

During Rehearsal and Recording

During rehearsal and production, the prompter operator—who may be physically located in either the control room or the studio—must position the script properly. Many prompters have a variable speed control or a mouse that the operator uses to move the computerized copy. The words that a performer is reading at the moment should be about two-thirds up from the bottom of the screen (one-third from the top) so that there is no chance the talent will need to hesitate.

After the Production

At the conclusion of the production, you generally delete the script from the computer, unless the producer or someone else instructs you to leave it there. If production is over for the day, you usually exit the program and shut the computer down. However, in some facilities the computers are left on most of the time, or the engineer or class instructor powers everything down at the end.

Lighting Directors

The lighting director (LD) is in charge of seeing that the lights are properly set for the telecast and that any special lighting effects are executed (see Chapter 6). Usually this person has a crew that places, connects, and adjusts the lights while the LD makes sure the overall effect is achieved. If the same set, such as a news set, is used day after day without major lighting changes, the lighting director may be on call and not in the studio on a daily basis.

Before Production Begins

Most of a lighting director’s work takes place well before the production begins. For a studio shoot, you and your crew make sure that the proper amount and type of light reach all the studio locations that need it. For studios that can afford a large number of lighting instruments, this might involve identifying, turning on, and adjusting the appropriate lights on the grid—the crisscrossing pipes, or battens, that hang below the ceiling. If a studio does not have a large number of lights, the LD and crew might have to climb ladders and move lights on the grid to get the proper illumination. (See Figure 2.8.)

Whether the lights are moved or prepositioned, crew members might have to readjust them so that they cast the best illumination on a specific area. Lights are usually plugged into a dimmer board so their intensity can be raised or lowered easily. As LD, you must make sure that the lights provide the proper intensity (brightness), quality (hard or soft), color temperature (usually 3,200 degrees Kelvin indoor or 5,600 degrees Kelvin outdoor), and emotional feeling.

During Rehearsal and Recording

During rehearsals, you and your crew make whatever adjustments you or the director deem necessary. During the production, the LD and crew may have little to do. If the same lighting is needed throughout the program, they might leave the studio to work on another show. In student productions, the lighting people often assume other positions during the production, such as camera operators or boom microphone operators. However, if lights need to be dimmed or changed in some way during production, then at least the lighting director remains to execute these changes.

After the Production

When the production is over, someone must make sure all the lights are turned off. Any lighting peripherals should be stored properly, such as gels, extension cables, and so on. If studio procedures so require, any lights that were moved should be put back where they were prior to the production.

Audio Engineers

Some of the work that audio engineers perform is in the studio with the microphones. Some is in the control room with the audio console (see Chapter 7). Some involves setting up other audio systems, including the intercom between director and crew and the IFB system between producer and talent. Audio work can employ one, two, or more people depending on the complexity and budget of the program.

Before Production Begins

The audio engineer must select the appropriate microphones and position them in the studio before the production begins. Do you need to attach a mic to the talent’s clothing? Will you be placing any mics on stands, and, if so, do you have the stands? The mics must be connected to receptacles located somewhere in the studio that send the audio signal to the audio console in the control room.

Once you have positioned and connected the mics, you must test them to make sure they are working. Usually, this job involves two audio operators—one talking into each mic in the studio and another adjusting it through the audio console in the control room. If only one audio operator is available, the floor manager can talk into the mics. The talent might talk into the mics, and should do so to set levels, but it is a good idea to make sure the mics are actually working before the talent arrives. You do not want high-priced talent sitting around while you replace a mic battery or trace down a bad cable.

If the program contains music, sound effects, or other audio elements, check these also. Set the levels in advance, perhaps marking the levels on the audio console with a piece of masking tape or other tape that is easily removed. Cue each audio element before production so that when it is needed during rehearsal or recording, it will come in exactly as the director desires.

It is also a good idea to mark on the audio console, again with easily removable tape or a sticky note, what each of the inputs is handling. For example, for each mic input, you can write the name of the talent using that mic. This helps you bring up the right person’s sound at the right time. Similarly, the inputs from the playback computer or server, i-device, Blu-ray/DVD/CD, and such should be clearly marked. Some boards have light emitting diode (LED) readouts that describe the inputs, so there is no need for handwritten labels.

Be sure to check that the intercom system, or private line (PL), is working between the director and crew. Check that all headsets and microphones are functioning. If the talent is connected to an IFB, make sure that system is working properly, including the talent’s earpiece, and help adjust audio levels to a comfortable setting for the talent.

During Rehearsal and Recording

During rehearsal and production, there might be a need for audio operators in both the studio and the control room. If a mic needs to be moved (on a boom or other apparatus) during recording, then someone must be in the studio to do this job. If all the mics are attached to talent’s clothing, then there is not much a studio audio operator can do. There could be a need for two operators in the control room, however. If a show has complicated audio (and if the control room audio area is large enough), one person can operate the audio console while another starts and stops recorders, the i-player, or other equipment. More commonly, however, one audio engineer handles all the control-room audio. (See Figure 2.9.)

During rehearsal you should have all performers speak at the voice level they will use during performance so you can set the levels of their mics. Too often, beginning audio operators say, “Have him speak louder,” or “Have her move closer to the mic.” This is the wrong approach. The person (especially one who is seated) who moves into the mic or speaks louder during the test will probably lean to a more natural position and lower his or her volume level during the show. It is the audio operator’s responsibility to get consistent quality sound. Can you move the mic closer to the person? Can you increase the volume on the console without creating distortion?

Once the production begins, you will bring in sounds when the director calls for them. In some cases, the director might delegate an audio cue rather than say it, such as, “Stop the music at the moment the actor presses the remote control,” or “Fade the music out when I give the command to fade to black.” Your main job is to make the sound audible and consistent. For example, in most instances the music should be at a background level, lower than the voice so it does not drown out what the talent is saying (bringing the music up to foreground level only for moments when it is the principal audio element). You should also make sure that someone who talks softly can be heard as well as someone with a booming voice.

After the Production

After the production, the audio engineer(s) should coil the audio cables and put away all the microphones, generally in boxes that are specially made for them. Some mics have batteries that need to be removed when not in use in order to extend battery life. Any USB drives, iPods, CDs, or other audio storage devices should be returned to those who brought them or be put away where they belong.

You should “normal” the audio board, meaning return it to the generally agreed-upon configuration for the facility, such as sliding fader bars down and selecting switches to off. Because audio consoles contain a large number of buttons, knobs, and faders, the audio personnel of a facility should agree on commonly used settings for everything and then set the board that way at the end of each production. An enormous amount of time can be wasted if an operator turns on a little-used knob and then doesn’t turn it off again and the next operator can’t figure out what is wrong. This is a particularly common problem in colleges, where many students who are just learning the board use it during the course of a day. For this reason, college facility engineers often make drawings of how the board should be set or carefully indicate the desired positions of the various controls.

Graphics Operators

The graphics operator is in charge of the computer system that creates or imports text, images, and various visual effects (see Chapter 8). These include such things as opening and closing credits, temperatures used for weathercasts, short animated sequences in commercials, statistics for sportscasts, and bar graphs in corporate productions. Originally, graphics operators were called character generator (CG) operators, because the early graphic computer systems were capable of displaying only alphanumeric characters. As the sophistication of the equipment has grown, so have the duties of the CG operator, so, although that term is still used, graphics operator or graphic artist is now more commonplace.

Before Production Begins

While the rest of the crew is setting up, you must create the visuals needed for the program. (See Figure 2.10.) If these are extensive, you might have to come in a day or two early to create them and store them in the computer or on an external storage disk. If they consist only of opening and closing credits, the job is fairly simple. You, as a graphic artist, should have a good sense of composition and color, because you are creating something that will make an aesthetic statement.

During Rehearsal and Recording

During rehearsal and recording, make sure that the proper graphic is ready when the director calls for it and that it is displayed in the manner requested. Should it roll or blink? Do credits come on one after another, or is there time in between? As with other positions, you should exhibit the discipline of thinking ahead so everything for which you are responsible proceeds smoothly.

After the Production

After the production, you should remove most of the graphics from the computer so that they do not take up storage space on the hard drive. Some stations or studios use the same graphics over and over. Those files are usually stored permanently. One of the graphics you constructed for a particular program might be something another program wishes to use with slight modifications. In that case, you should save the graphic in a predetermined file so it can be located easily.

Technical Directors

The technical director (TD) operates the switcher—the piece of equipment that selects which video signal goes out over the airwaves or is recorded (e.g., camera 1, a segment from a satellite feed, a video clip from a computer with graphics over it). This piece of equipment can be used simply to cut from one picture to another, but most switchers are capable of executing a large number of effects—dissolves, wipes, swirls, squeezes, and so on (see Chapter 9). Some switchers also have graphics capabilities, so the technical director can double as the graphics operator. Like the audio console, the switcher has a large number of buttons, knobs, and levers, and you must become adept at operating them quickly. The TD is also the head technical person for most studio productions. Although the director actually gives the commands to the various equipment operators, the technical director oversees and assists the crew members if they are having trouble executing what the director wants or if the equipment malfunctions.

Before Production Begins

Prior to the production, the technical director is responsible for ensuring that all the equipment works. If a monitor is flickering, should you replace it, try to fix it, or leave it as is? You also need to know about any difficult picture-switching maneuvers the director might want, such as keying text from the graphics generator over a split screen of two images. Often special effects can be partially set up ahead of time so that they are easy to execute when they are needed.

During Rehearsal and Recording

During rehearsal and recording, the TD operates the switcher. (See Figure 2.11.) As with other crew members, you follow the instructions of the director. Usually, you sit right next to the director so you can communicate easily. For some productions with little or no budget or small-scale projects (e.g., distance education classes), a director might also operate the switcher himself or herself. However, overloading the director with too many chores increases the probability of error.

After the Production

After the production, you set the switcher to its normal configuration in the same manner that the audio operator normals the audio board. Usually, this involves pushing all the buttons that indicate “black” so that no pictures are coming to the monitors or recording devices (e.g., computers, servers, digital video recorders). You also have the responsibility for the technical strike—turning off and putting away the equipment. As part of this duty, you should note any hardware or software that needs repair or reconfiguring and inform the studio engineer.

The websites of several organizations provide additional information for the technical professions in television broadcasting. The National Association of Broadcast Employees and Technicians (NABET) is a union for those involved in the technical aspects of radio, television, and film production. The Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers (SMPTE) is an organization for engineers, technical directors, editors, technicians, manufacturers, educators, and consultants. The society offers professional development and networking opportunities as well as information about the latest technology developments. The Society of Broadcast Engineers (SBE) is devoted to the advancement of all levels and types of broadcast engineering.

Recordists

The videotape operator, or “tape op,” so-named in the days when a production was recorded on videotape and source video was played back from videotape, has undergone a change in job title. The industry is almost completely tapeless today, with recording and playback directly to and from computer hard drives, external drives, DVRs, or portable solid state media, such as SD (secure digital) memory cards. So the terms recording engineer and recordist are now used instead. A few even suggest file manager because this person is responsible for the digital files that play back and are recorded. While technically accurate, file manager sounds too much like an office job, so, for this text, we’ll mostly use recordist. If this person only handles cueing and playing roll-ins, and does not record, then playback operator is accurate.

The recordist is responsible for recording the program. Often, programs that air live (such as news or sports or awards shows) are recorded for archival purposes and to use in other programs. In addition to recording, the person in this position often plays back video from whatever source or sources the facility uses (computers, servers, DVRs). For example, during a live newscast at 6 p.m., the playback operator might roll in a news story that was edited in the early afternoon. As with other jobs, there might not be a recording engineer or playback operator as a specific position because another crew member might operate controls remotely that play back material from the server or record the program to it.

Before Production Begins

Before the program begins, the recordist makes sure each playback source is properly cued so the right material plays when the director calls for it. You also need to make sure the machine is properly set up so that the signal goes where it is supposed to go. If it is going to a server, you must be sure the material will be placed in the right directory. If you are recording on a computer or DVR, you must make sure all the controls are properly set.

During Rehearsal and Recording

During rehearsal, you are likely to play back material but not record the rehearsal itself, although sometimes final dress rehearsals are recorded so that material from it can be used if something goes wrong during production. During production, start the recorder when the director or associate director instructs you to, and monitor all the vital signs to make sure the program is actually recording. (See Figure 2.12.) Are the audio signals going to the correct channels, and are they at the right levels? Is the video meter indicating that the machine is getting a strong-enough signal? You also play back prerecorded video clips from a computer or server (roll-ins) when they are needed.

After the Production

In facilities where material is stored on a server, it is important to have a systematic method for naming files so that they can be easily retrieved. The major information—such as length, date, and director—should be incorporated in the file name in a searchable fashion. Most studios have a standard labeling system that includes the title and length of the program, the date on which it was recorded, and the name of the director. You should file the program in the appropriate place on the computer or server, or give the disk, SD card, USB drive, or other medium to the appropriate person. The same is true for all the material that was rolled into the program.

Editors

The editor’s job is to piece together different shots or scenes recorded in the studio or the field to create a unified project. Sometimes all the editor’s work occurs before a production is shot, and sometimes it all occurs afterward. With the advent of digital editing, this person can also edit while a program is in progress. Some shows, such as a live telecast of a telethon, do not require an editor at all.

Before Production Begins

An editor works before a program is recorded to piece together material that will be rolled into the production. For example, you may assemble a background piece about an Olympic athlete to include in a magazine show. You usually work alone in a small room called an editing suite that contains all the equipment needed (see Chapter 11).

Sometimes, the director (or a reporter, in the case of news) is also present during editing. Editors who work alone are usually given a script or a list of shots so they have a general idea of what they are to assemble. They also use their own creativity to present material in an aesthetically pleasing manner. (See Figure 2.13.)

During Rehearsal and Recording

Editing that occurs during production is often done to present a summary of something that has happened during the course of the telecast. For example, you might pull together a collage that shows a basketball player sinking six baskets at six different times during the first half. Then the sportscasters could comment on these during halftime.

After the Production

Most editing occurs after the production, when you place shots in juxtaposition with each other. Hours of footage may need to be cut down to a 30-minute show. You and the director (and/or associate director) must organize the footage, decide what to use, and assemble it.

Sometimes, the editing job is divided between those editing the picture and others working on the sound. This is typical for dramas and comedies, which often need special audio enhancements such as a laugh track, sound effects, or music. Other editing is much simpler, with both sound and picture edited by the same person. As an editor you may need to shorten a game show that ran too long, piece together parts of a music show recorded in a stop-and-go fashion over the course of an afternoon, or eliminate dull parts of a talk show.

The adjacent box provides a quick reference of the jobs and duties described in detail in the previous sections.

Other Positions

A slew of other people are needed for TV production. Production assistants undertake all the little jobs that need to be done: distributing scripts to cast and crew, moving flower pots, getting coffee for everyone. For a large unionized production, specialists undertake specific jobs: A propmaster places and handles all props; painters and carpenters are available to touch up sets; makeup artists apply makeup to talent; grips carry cable and other things; gaffers and electricians handle lights and power; and a unit production manager schedules equipment and facilities. All of these people are usually around before, during, and after production to handle setup, production miscellany, and cleanup as needed.

The overall look of a production falls under the province of the production designer, art director, and/or set designer.⁵ These people work to ensure that all the artistic aspects of a program (set pieces, props, graphics, costumes) work together cohesively, without clashing or presenting mixed messages. Most of this work takes place before the production begins, as does the work of costume designers.

Depending on budget, a music composer might be hired to create theme music for a series or to add music to a finished program. Theme music might be composed prior to production, but atmosphere music is almost always composed after editing is complete. If audio is complicated, a sound designer might be hired to handle the overall sound of a production.

People who execute special effects and video or visual effects⁶ have been in great demand in recent years. Even for studio shoots, pyrotechnics are used more frequently than in the past, and many shots that used to be shown fairly straight are now enhanced through postproduction digital manipulation. This has resulted in numerous new positions, such as visual effects supervisor (oversees the people who create computerized effects), matchmove artist (performs various actions, such as walking and sitting down, that are transferred into a computer and then used as a basis for the construction of fantasy characters such as animated space people), and compositor (joins together various effects so that they meld in a credible manner).

Different types of programs require different specialists. Are you featuring dogs, monkeys, or more exotic animals? If so, you need an animal handler, or wrangler. Are real plants and flowers involved? A greensperson will keep them looking fresh. Do you have children in the cast? Then you must hire a teacher/tutor. Are there dance numbers? Choreographers stage these. If the shoot is longer than a few hours, you’ll need to feed everyone—a job handled by craft services.

Overall, job classifications are in a state of flux. Technological advances eliminate jobs (e.g., camera operators eliminated by robotic cameras), but, just as quickly, other technological advances create new jobs (e.g., matchmove artist). The people most likely to succeed in behind-the-scenes employment are those who have a variety of skills and who are willing to learn new tasks and new equipment.

Cast

Because this book is aimed at the behind-the-scenes aspects of video production, we will not dwell on acting techniques, which are covered well in the many books on the subject.⁷ However, people who are in the television business and members of the general public often have to appear on the screen, and, certainly within the classroom setting, producers and directors often call upon their classmates to appear before the camera. Therefore, in this chapter, we give some rudimentary tips for appearing as the talent on a TV show.

A distinction is often made between two groups of talent: (1) those who serve as communicators, portraying themselves in the role of host or reporter, and (2) those in dramatic and comedic roles who are portraying a fictional character. The first category is referred to as performers, while the second group is referred to as actors. Although the two groups share many characteristics and concerns, it may be helpful to look at them separately in terms of what you need to do when you are in one of these roles.

Performers

Performers include announcers, hosts, reporters, people on reality shows, game-show contestants, interviewers, panel members, and the like. Performers are talent who portray themselves and often communicate personally with the audience. It must be noted that news professionals prefer the terms reporter, journalist, and anchor rather than performer because the latter might suggest an emphasis on entertainment over the delivery of facts. For this reason, some suggest using nonfictional talent for those who portray themselves and fictional talent for those who portray characters. However, fictional talent could be misinterpreted to mean that the person’s actual talent is fictional. For clarity, this chapter uses performer generally for those who portray themselves and journalist specifically for those who report the news.

Performers who communicate directly with the viewers, such as journalists and program hosts, must realize that even though millions of people might watch a particular program, television remains an intimate medium. It is usually viewed in the privacy of the home by an audience of one or a few people. You are most successful when you conceive of the audience in that manner: one to four people sitting just a few feet away. Other performers, such as interviewees and panel members, communicate with other people on the set, but they should keep in mind that their primary responsibility is still to the audience.

Voice and Eyes

Because of the intimacy of television, a natural, conversational speaking voice is best. The mic is usually clipped on your shirt or blouse, so there is no need to project your voice to some far off viewer. If you can convey the feeling of spontaneity and intimacy in your speaking style, you are on the way to capturing one of the most sought-after qualities of any television performer—sincerity. As one comedian wisecracked, “If you can fake sincerity, you got it made.” Most inexperienced performers speak too quickly rather than too slowly. Don’t rush your words; you might have thought and said them many times, but your audience is hearing them for the first time.

Just as important as vocal directness is visual directness. If you are speaking to the audience, maintain direct and personal eye contact with the camera lens at all times, looking straight into the heart of it. This direct eye contact is the secret to maintaining the illusion of an exclusive relationship with each member of the audience.

In maintaining the illusion of direct eye contact, you must become skilled in some of the artifice and techniques of the medium. When the director cuts from one camera shot of you, the performer, to another, you have to re-establish eye contact with the new camera immediately. One way to make this transition look as natural as possible is to glance downward—as if glancing at some notes or trying to collect your thoughts—and then immediately establish eye contact with the new camera. The director should inform you if one camera is being used exclusively for close-ups of some object you are demonstrating or discussing. Then you won’t need to worry about looking at that camera.

If you are speaking to someone else on the set, you should look at that person, even if he or she is off-screen. Keep in mind, however, that the camera is most likely on your face and that the audience is very aware of your expressions. Don’t grimace inappropriately or let your eyes roam a wide area. Most people are at least subconsciously aware of how to perform on TV because they have watched TV for so many years and been part of home movies. This is part of the reason reality shows have been successful. Untrained people can come across well on television if they at least sound and look relaxed.

Mannerisms

Because television is such an intimate, close-up medium, any distracting mannerism you have will be captured with full impact. Some nervous mannerisms, such as a facial twitch or the unconscious habit of licking your lips, may be hard to control. However, some fidgety distractions, such as playing with a pencil or rocking back and forth, can be corrected if someone calls them to your attention. Ask for such advice; it will help you come across better.

Vocal habits and mannerisms can also be distracting. The use of vocalized pauses (saying “um” or “ah”) every time there is a second of dead air is a problem many people share. The ubiquitous “I see” can easily become part of the interviewer’s basic vocabulary. Try to avoid these mannerisms.

Handling the Script

Depending on the program, you might work from a full script, speak extemporaneously, or use some combination of both. Some performers, such as guests on a talk show, might speak spontaneously or ad-lib with no preparation at all. Other times, performers, especially interviewers, work from notes. These give the talent a solid outline to speak or interview with confidence; yet, by composing the exact words on the spot, the performer adds vitality and sincerity that is difficult to achieve with a prepared text.

You can handle fully scripted material in a number of ways. Memorization is one, but seldom can untrained performers deliver memorized copy without sounding artificial and stiff. You are better off reading from a physical script in your hands or, better yet, from a prompting device. Reading directly from a script is satisfactory if you are quite familiar with the material and do not have to keep your eyes glued to the script. Some people can handle a script very well, glancing down only occasionally. Others, because of insecurity or nervousness, get completely buried in the script and never establish eye contact with the camera/audience. If you do use a script, make sure the pages are unstapled so you can slide the pages to the side unobtrusively without creating noise on the microphone. Also, make sure the pages are in the right order before starting the final take.

Occasionally, performers read from cue cards. These are large pieces of poster board on which the words of the script are written in large print, usually with felt-tipped pens. Someone holds them next to the camera so the talent can read them but still appear to have eye contact. In a studio situation, you may read from a prompter. (Refer back to Figure 2.7.) This enables you to read the copy while looking directly at the lens. Try to keep your eyes from moving back and forth so you do not look like you are reading.

Regardless of what you are using for a script, it might turn out to be too long or not long enough. It is a good idea to prepare material near the end of the program that can be cut. Also, have some extra material in mind that can be added, if need be.

Other Performing Tips

To achieve good camera angles, performers must remain in close physical proximity. Some performers feel uncomfortable with this invasion of personal space. They may start out in a chair close to the other talent but gradually, during the course of rehearsal and recording, move farther away. The result is a gap that looks inappropriate in the TV frame. (See Figure 2.14.) As a performer, try to get used to this closeness, and check every once in a while to make sure you and the other performers are positioned properly.

Make sure you know where the microphones and lights are, and don’t walk out of the light or out of the range of the sound pickup. Don’t acknowledge the stage manager’s hand signals in any way (such as nodding your head), because this will show on camera. Do, however, respond to the stage manager’s signals quickly. For example, when the stage manager cues you, start talking. Otherwise, you will be staring into the camera with “egg on your face.” Know where the stage manager is, even though it is his or her job to stand where you can easily see the signals.

Don’t make any big or sweeping gestures, because chances are that the camera will be on a fairly tight shot. Whenever you can, help the director prepare for important shots by telegraphing them ahead of time. For example, say, “Now let’s look at the first demonstration.” This will warn the director that you are going to move to the demonstration area. However, don’t give direct instructions, such as, “Now, if I could just get a shot of this wristwatch!”

In a similar vein, if you are going to make a big move, lean into it gradually, giving the director, the camera operator, and perhaps the audio boom operator ample warning. In general, you should develop a habit of moving slowly as you go from one area of the set to another. This gives the camera operator a good chance of moving along gracefully, and the motion still looks fast and natural enough to the viewer.

If you hold some object in front of the camera for a close-up, hold your arm tightly against your body to steady the hand. Even better, rest the object on a table or stand so there is no possibility of it moving. Then hold the object or let it rest long enough for a camera operator to focus and get a close-up and for the director to call for that shot and keep it on screen long enough for viewers to see. Don’t handle microphones, except hand mics, and avoid playing with the mic cords, because both can ruin audio. When you are asked to give an audio level, speak as you will speak during the program.

Clothing

Performers typically wear their own clothes, not specially designed costumes. If you are going to perform on a program, try to find out something about the set so you do not clash with it. If you will be sitting in a tan chair, for example, don’t wear a tan shirt or dress because you will disappear. If the set’s unifying color is green, don’t wear red clothing—unless you want to give the impression of Christmas.

Unless a deliberately colorful, dazzling effect is advised, stick to clothing of a dull saturation—muted aqua rather than chartreuse, tan rather than brilliant yellow. Also, consider the brightness and tonal balance of your clothing in terms of the overall desired emotional effect; darker fabric suggests a more serious tone than lighter fabric.

Line is another important design consideration. Vertical lines tend to emphasize tall and slender proportions; horizontal stripes tend to exaggerate weight and mass. Performers who are concerned about appearing too heavy are advised to stick to vertical lines.

With some cameras, dark clothes make a pale person look even paler, while light-colored clothes next to a tanned complexion make the skin appear darker. Dark-skinned performers should be careful of light-colored clothing, which tends to heighten the tonal contrast and wash out facial details in the dark areas.

Generally, finely detailed patterns should be avoided. Whereas clothing with a rich, thick texture photographs well on television, clothing with a fine pattern usually does not because it is too busy and distracting. Thin stripes, herringbones, and small checks can create a moiré effect, a distracting visual vibration caused by the interference of the clothing pattern with the TV scanning lines.

One other clothing consideration involves chroma key. This is an effect in which talent is shot against a colored background, usually a specific shade of blue or green; then the blue or green is removed, and something else, such as a picture of a building, is inserted in its place (see Chapter 9). The problem is that anything, even a tie, that contains the blue or green used for the chroma key disappears, and the background picture shows through. Imagine the effect if you have a scene from a fire keyed behind you, and the audience sees flames coming through your shirt. Ask if chroma key is going to be used, and, if so, avoid wearing chroma key blue or green.

Hair and Makeup

Hairstyles with a definite shape or firm silhouette usually complement the performer more than wispy, fluffy hairdos. Comb your hair carefully, and consider using a smoothing serum because backlight tends to make loose strands stand out. Avoid appearing on camera with fancy hair treatments, fresh perms, or overly processed hair because these can make you look unnatural. The goal of makeup is to look natural. For those with good complexions, no makeup might be the way to go. For those with blemishes such as warts, acne, veins, and wrinkles, some makeup might be necessary or desirable. Depending on how the person appears under the scrutiny of lights and high-definition cameras, the person might need a full pancake base with powder, highlights, mascara, and so on, or the person might require only some airbrushing. (See Figure 2.15.) This lighter form of makeup covers the face with tiny dots of makeup, similar to how an ink-jet printer covers paper. It tends to hide the blemishes but keep the person looking natural. In some instances, regular street makeup is fine.

If the TV facility has a hair and makeup person, you can let that expert decide your hairstyle and type of makeup. If hair and makeup experts are not available, you will need to tend to these items yourself. Considering all these aspects of performing is part of the overall discipline and technique of being in front of the camera.

Actors

Many of the observations regarding performers apply equally to actors. Actors, too, must be concerned with their relationship to the audience. Are you talking conversationally as your character would talk? Are you aware of the demands of the mics and lights? Do you understand the stage manager’s hand signals?

Acting involves special considerations, as well. Actors portraying characters who look very different from themselves need special effects makeup and hairpieces that can take hours to apply. Also, actors must adjust to the concept of a moving audience perspective; there is no firm boundary separating the viewers from the actors. The audience’s point of view is switched every time the camera is changed. The viewer can be transported sideways, in or out, or into the mind of the actor. Actors must be aware of how their actions appear from all angles.

Precision

Actors’ movements must be precise because they must remain within the bounds of what the camera is shooting. If the actor’s head is tilted at the wrong angle, the framing for a given shot might be off. If an actor does not “hit his mark” at exactly the right spot behind the sofa, the actor can ruin the impact of an emotional close-up. Sometimes, directors have actors “cheat to camera.” An actor in a two-shot, for instance, is often directed to turn his or her face slightly toward the camera, rather than look directly at the other actor. Such cheating is not perceived by the viewer, but it does result in a slightly more head-on shot into the camera.

Television programs have a demanding and nonflexible time frame. Most dramatic programs have to be squeezed (or stretched) into given time slots—multiples of a half hour, minus requisite time for commercials. This means that you, as an actor, might need to adjust your pacing very precisely, speeding up or slowing down delivery of lines or action. This is especially a concern with soap operas and situation comedies, where timing is especially strict. It is less of a concern for filmed dramas, where the exact timing can be worked out in the editing process by cutting or augmenting silent footage, panoramic long shots, and chase sequences.

Quick Study

Compared to the stage and motion pictures, television drama is a quick-study medium. Whether they are working with single-camera or multiple-camera techniques, regular actors in a continuing series must learn up to an hour-long program script every week (about 45 minutes without commercials and credits). This is the equivalent of two feature-length motion pictures every month. For the actor in an hour-long daytime soap opera, the pace is even more demanding: up to a program hour (45 minutes) of dialogue in a day! Scripts can be placed on prompters for actors, but often the actors do not look in the direction of the camera. For this reason they generally prefer cue cards, and, of course, many memorize their lines.

Performer and Actor Organizations

Many organizations exist for people pursuing careers as television talent, both performers (nonfiction) and actors (fiction). SAG-AFTRA is the largest talent union. This organization was formed in 2012 by a merger of the American Federation of Television and Radio Artists (AFTRA)—which represented journalists, broadcasters, recording artists, and other performers—and the Screen Actors Guild (SAG), which was already the nation’s largest labor union representing actors.

Performers and actors are crucial to any video production because they are what the home audience sees. But all positions are important. A mistake by anyone, cast or crew, affects the quality of the production.