Previous Chapter
22. Multifunctional scaffolds for bone tissue engineering and in situ drug delivery
Index
A
α-helical chain structure, 603
acellular matrices, 447–51
bladder acellular matrix graft (BAMG), 449–51
small intestine submucosa (SIS), 448–9
acetylcholine receptors (AChRs), 372
acute kidney injuries, 427–30
acute liver failure, 566
adipose-derived mesenchymal stem cells (ADMSCs), 528
adipose derived stem cells (ADSC), 485
advanced glycation end products (AGEs), 420–1
air peak, 307–8
airway tissue
models, 600–3
macroscopic appearance of TDCCs, 604
preparation of human bronchial mucosa model, 601
replacement, regeneration and modelling, 591–602
allotransplanted airway constructs, 594–6
artificial airway constructs, 593–4
autologous tissues, 592–3
human donor windpipe for tracheal replacement, 595
modular silicone-based tracheal tissue engineered construct, 598
scaffold-free TE approach, 597
tissue-engineered airway constructs, 596–600
alendronate, 661
mesh, 397–8
molecules, 397–8
alkaline phosphatase (ALP), 552
Alloderm, 451
allogeneic tissue engineering, 263–5
allografting, 473
alternate cell sources
stem cells usage, 349–53
amniotic fluid-derived stem cells, 352–3
embryonic stem cells, 349–50
induced pluripotent stem cells, 351–2
somatic cell nuclear transfer, 350–1
alumina, 4–6
aluminium oxide (Al2O3) composite fibres, 133–4
amniotic fluid-derived stem cells, 352–3
amorphous tricalcium phosphate (ATCP) composite fibres, 139
amoxicillin, 656
angiogenesis, 94–6
angiogenic factor delivery, 373–4
animal model, 428
antibody-antigen binding, 286
antisense oligonucleotides (AON), 525
antithrombotic haemofilter, 416
apatite composite scaffolds, 49–51
apatite-wollastonite (A-W) glass-ceramic, 8
Apligraf, 606
arteriovenous (AV)-loop models, 533–4
articular cartilage, 542
biomaterials for replacement therapy, 547–55
bioceramic-based scaffolds for osteochondral repair, 553–5
naturally derived biomaterials, 547–51
synthetic polymers for subchondral bone repair, 551–3
implantation procedure in humans, 544
structure, 545–7
cartilage tissue in vitro, 546
tissue engineering, 547
artificial myocardial tissue (AMT), 396
artificial pancreas, 292–3
atherosclerosis, 590–1
atomic bonding, 9
atoms, 74–5
attenuated total reflectance-Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (ATR-FTIR), 126
Auger electron microscopy, 19
autografting, 472–3
autologous stem cells, 531–2
autologous tissue, 592
engineering, 263–5
axial vascularisation, 534
axolemma, 469
axons, 469
B
composite fibres, 129–31
PCL, 129–31
twin screw extrusion electrospinning (TSEE) device, 130
bacterial infection, 174
balloon angioplasty, 280–1
β-TCP, 76
BCP, 77
bioactive glasses for tissue engineering, 67–101
bioactive composites, 97–9
bioactive glass-ceramics, 96–7
future trends, 99–101
preparation and properties, 86–91
properties, 77–80
scaffolds, 69–71
hydroxyapatite (HA), 74–6
schematic of glass conversion technique, Plate V
properties, 77–80
mechanical properties of human bone, dense HA and dense β-TCP, 78
Weibull plots of compressive strength data for HA and β-TCP, 79
properties of some calcium phosphate materials, 72
tissue engineering applications, 80–83
new bone formed in rat calvarial defects, 81
bioactive composites, 97–9
SEM images of gelatin-BG hybrid scaffolds, 99
bioactive glass scaffolds
mechanical properties, 88–91
compressive strength of silicate 13-93 and borate 13-93B3 by robocasting, 90
prepared by variety of methods, 89
angiogenesis and soft tissue repair, 94–6
healing wounds in human patient treated with bioactive glass, Plate IV
bioactive ceramics for tissue engineering, 67–101
applications, 80–83
bioactive composites, 97–9
bioactive glass-ceramics, 96–7
future trends, 99–101
properties, 77–80
scaffolds, 69–71
borate bioactive glasses, 85–6
compositions of some bioactive glasses, 83
degradation and conversion to HA, 87–8
effect of glass composition on conversion of bioactive glass scaffolds, 87
phosphate bioactive glasses, 86
preparation and properties, 86–91
mechanical properties, 88–91
silicate bioactive glasses, 83–5
tissue engineering, 91–6
bone tissue engineering, 91–93
treatment of bone infection, 93–4
bioactive inorganic phase nanocomposites
bone tissue engineering, 115–44
composite materials, 116–18
electrospinning, 122
electrospun composite scaffolds based on natural polymers, 122–7
electrospun composite scaffolds based on synthetic polymers, 127–40
future trends, 142–4
nanocomposite for tissue engineering, 118–21
natural and synthetic polymer combinations, 141–2
bioactive nanoceramics, 119
bioactive nanoparticles, 163
bioactive polymer nanocomposites
bone tissue engineering, 115–44
composite materials, 116–18
electrospinning, 122
electrospun composite scaffolds based on natural polymers, 122–7
electrospun composite scaffolds based on synthetic polymers, 127–40
future trends, 142–4
nanocomposite for tissue engineering, 118–21
natural and synthetic polymer combinations, 141–2
bioartificial glomerulus
development, 431–3
electron micrographs of CD133+ cells before Cy B treatment, 434
filtration rates of CD133+ cell between non-treatment vs Cy B treatment, 435
bioartificial kidneys
concept and configuration, 416–18
flow diagram of treatment with continuous filtrate and renal tubule device, 417
bioartificial renal tubule devices
development for long-term treatment, 431
intensities of energy metabolic activity of LLC-PK vs cultured cells, 433
SEM image of platelet adhesion on sponge layer and skin layer surfaces, 432
bioartificial tubule devices
present developments, 418–27
maintenance of confluent monolayer tubular epithelial cells on polymer membrane, 418–19
metabolic and transport properties of proximal tubular epithelial cell layer, 419–24
treatment of acute kidney injuries with endotoxinaemia, 427–30
expression of inflammatory or anti-inflammatory cytokine mRNA, 430
plasma levels of IL-6 in AKI goats treated with BTD and sham-BTD, 430
survival curves of AKI goats with or without BTD treatment, 429
survival time of AKI goats with or without BTD treatment, 429
bioceramic nanoparticles
tissue engineering and drug delivery, 633–42
ceramic nanoparticles, 635
fluorescent nanoparticles for imaging, 639–40
future trends, 642
gene silencing, 638–9
gene transfer, 637–8
nanoparticles for drug delivery, 635–7
tissue engineering, 641
types of inorganic nanoparticles, 634
biocompatibility, 20–2
biodegradable nanocomposites
bone tissue engineering, 115–44
composite materials, 116–18
electrospinning, 122
electrospun composite scaffolds based on natural polymers, 122–7
electrospun composite scaffolds based on synthetic polymers, 127–40
future trends, 142–4
nanocomposite for tissue engineering, 118–21
natural and synthetic polymer combinations, 141–2
biodegradable polymers, 280–1
bioinert ceramics, 4–6
Biolox, 4–6
biomaterial surfaces
cells characterisation and tissue-engineered constructs using microscopy techniques, 196–220
combining techniques, 215–18
confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM), 200–15
future trends, 218–20
general considerations and experimental design, 197–200
articular cartilage replacement therapy, 547–55
decellularised tissue matrices, 355–6
macroscopic appearance of natural matrix from porcine bladder, 444
naturally derived materials, 354–5
synthetic biodegradable polymers, 356–7
biomaterials-based strategies, 390–4
biomaterials development
nanoscale design in biomineralisation for bone tissue engineering (BTE), 153–84
drug-delivery systems, 174–6
future trends, 183–4
materials and techniques, 161–2
nanocomposites, 176–9
nanofibres and nanotubes, 169–71
nanogels and injectable systems, 179–81
nanoparticles, 162–9
nanopatterns, 171–3
surface functionalisation and templating, 181–3
biomechanical conditioning, 455
biomedical applications
carrier systems and biosensors, 270–94
biosensors, 284–9
carrier systems, 271–84
commercial systems, 284
continuous monitoring, 290–1
future trends, 292–3
immunosensors for point-of-care testing, 291–2
biomimetic deposition, 26–7
biomimetic hydrogels, 375
biomimetic mineralisation, 161
biomimetic synthesis, 162
biomineralisation, 154–5
nanoscale design for developing new biomaterials for bone tissue engineering (BTE), 153–84
drug-delivery systems, 174–6
future trends, 183–4
materials and techniques, 161–2
nanocomposites, 176–9
nanofibres and nanotubes, 169–71
nanogels and injectable systems, 179–81
nanoparticles, 162–9
nanopatterns, 171–3
surface functionalisation and templating, 181–3
biominerals, 154
perfusion bioreactors, 232–41
direct bioreactors, 234–8
hollow fibre membrane reactors, 238–41
microfabricated bioreactors, 233–4
two-dimensional perfusion bioreactors, 232–3
stirred tank bioreactors, 230–2
biosensors, 284–9
carrier systems for biomedical applications, 270–94
carrier systems, 271–84
commercial systems, 284
continuous monitoring, 290–1
future trends, 292–3
immunosensors for point-of-care testing, 291–2
glucose, 286–9
first generation biosensors, 287–8
second generation biosensors, 288–9
third generation sensors, 289
history and format, 284–6
schematic illustration, 285
biotemplating, 161–2
bladder, 361–2
structure and function, 439–41
transverse section through urinary bladder, 440
tissue regeneration, 439–57
cell conditioning in an external bioreactor, 454–5
clinical need for bladder reconstruction, 441–2
concepts, strategies and biomaterials, 442–4
future trends, 455–6
review of past and current strategies in bladder reconstruction, 445–54
review of past and current strategies, 445–54
acellular matrices, 447–51
free tissue grafts, 447
natural ECM, 451–2
synthetic grafts, 452–4
vascularised tissue grafts, 445–7
bladder submucosa matrix (BSM), 360
bladder wall, 452
blending, 50
bone
structure and properties, 155–7
schematics of seven levels of bone hierarchy, 156
bone cements, 180
bone infection, 93–4
bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells (BMSC), 485
bone regeneration
polymer and apatite composite scaffolds, 49–51
SEM micrographs of PLLA/apatite scaffold prepared by biomimetic approach, 52
SEM micrographs of PLLA/mHAP and PLLA/nHAP fabricated using phase separation, 51
bone repair, 159
bioactive glasses, 91–93
optical image of von Kossa stained sections, Plate VI
biodegradable and bioactive polymer and inorganic phase nanocomposites, 115–44
composite materials, 116–18
electrospinning, 122
electrospun composite scaffolds based on natural polymers, 122–7
electrospun composite scaffolds based on synthetic polymers, 127–40
future trends, 142–4
nanocomposite for tissue engineering, 118–21
natural and synthetic polymer combinations, 141–2
drug-delivery systems, 174–6
SEM images of nanotubular surfaces, 176
evolution of bone replacement and regeneration strategies, 158
multifunctional scaffolds, 648–64
drug carriers, 650–3
future trends, 663–4
nanoscale design in biomineralisation for developing new biomaterials, 153–84
future trends, 183–4
materials and techniques, 161–2
nanocomposites, 176–9
nanofibres and nanotubes, 169–71
nanogels and injectable systems, 179–81
nanoparticles, 162–9
nanopatterns, 171–3
surface functionalisation and templating, 181–3
borate bioactive glasses, 85–6
bortezomib, 276–7
Botox, 441–2
bronchial mucosa, 600
bulk modulus, 320
bulking agents, 357–8
C
calcination, 23–4
calcium carbonate (CaCO3) composite fibres, 128–9
bioceramics, 80
ceramics, 6–7
Ca/P ratio of various calcium phosphates, 7
composite fibres, 137–9
hybrid nanocomposites, 175
calibration
process, 305
strategy, 308
capsular matrix, 545
carbohydrate polymers, 354–5
carbon nanofibres (CNF), 403
carbonate, 10
cardiovascular regenerative medicine, 389–90
Carpentier’s LD cardiac wrap, 447
carrier systems, 271–84
biosensors for biomedical applications, 270–94
biosensors, 284–9
commercial systems, 284
continuous monitoring, 290–1
future trends, 292–3
immunosensors for point-of-care testing, 291–2
classes of materials, 272–8
hydrophilic polymers, 272–5
intelligent hydrogels, 275–7
natural polymers, 277–8
micelles, vesicles and liposomes, 278–80
structures of micelle and vesicle, 278
nanotechnology, 280–4
schematic structure of fourth generation dendrimer, 281
cartilage
tissue engineering, 541–56
biomaterials for articular cartilage replacement therapy, 547–55
future trends, 556
strategies for cartilage repair, 542–5
structure of articular cartilage, 545–7
ceftazidime, 656
ceftriaxone, 656
biomaterial surfaces and tissue-engineered constructs using microscopy techniques, 196–220
combining techniques, 215–18
confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM), 200–15
future trends, 218–20
general considerations and experimental design, 197–200
combining with scaffolds, 511–15
limitations, 514
scaffolds, 511–15
3D environment for tissue engineered constructs, 609
encapsulation, 359
MSCs, 611–12
SMCs, 609–10
cell-based tissue engineering, 353
cell conditioning
external bioreactor, 454–5
biomechanical conditioning, 455
static conditioning, 454–5
cell engineered transplantation
tissue engineered transplantation, 252–65
acute and chronic transplant rejection of allogeneic transplants, 253
autologous vs allogeneic tissue engineering, 263–5
future trends, 265
generality of resistance to immune rejection, 262–3
immune response to products, 255–62
testing and regulatory consequences, 263
cell membrane, 638
cell population, 527–8
sources, 508–11
de-cellularised porcine intestine perfused with blood, Plate XI
intestinal stem cells, 508–9
organoid units, 509–11
cell tracker, 214
cellular therapies, 357–9
bulking agents, 357–8
endocrine replacement, 359
injectable muscle cells, 358–9
central nervous system (CNS), 468
ceramic biomaterial, 305–9
application of composition-to-elasticity conversion technique, 313–19
application of CT-to-composition conversion technique, 305–9
behaviour, 322–6
boundary conditions of finite element model of single hydroxyapatite globule, 323
convergence study, 323
first and second-order moments of deviatoric stresses, 324
reaction forces at poles of granule, 324
solid finite elements-related probability density function of deviatoric stress norms, 325
solid finite elements-related probability density function of maximum principal stresses, 326
bioactive ceramics, 6–9
bioactive glasses and glass-ceramics, 8–9
calcium phosphate ceramics, 6–7
bioactivity and biocompatibility, 20–2
various types of materials and tissue response at implant-tissue interface, 21
bioinert ceramics, 4–6
summary of mechanical properties of various biomaterials, 5
characteristics, 9–12
bioactive glass-ceramics, 12
bioactive glasses, 11–12
HA and substituted HA, 9–11
microstructure, 12–16
AFM image of SiHA-coated titanium, 16
fracture surfaces of porous HA scaffolds, 14
TEM micrographs of calcium phosphates nanoparticles and SiHA, 15
three-dimensional structure of porous HA scaffold obtained by XMT, 17
processing, 22–7
coating processing, 26–7
glass, 25–6
glass-ceramics, 26
porous ceramics, 24–5
preparation of HA ceramics, 23–4
properties, 16–22
mechanical, 16–18
surface, 18–19
tissue engineering, 3–28
future trends, 27–8
ceramic direct perfusion reactors, 235
ceramic scaffolds, 236–8
ceramics
images to mathematical models and intravoxel micromechanics for polymers, 303–35
conversion of material composition into voxel-specific elastic properties, 311–21
conversion of voxel-specific CT data into material composition, 304–11
future trends, 335
intravoxel micromechanics-enhanced finite element simulations, 322–34
ink-jet printing, 235–6
chemical precipitation, 23
chitin, 478
chitosan (CTS)-hydroxyapatite (HA) composite nanofibres, 122–3
proliferation, 544–5
chondrogenesis, 549
chronic liver failure, 566
ciproflozacin, 656
Class II transactivator (CIITA), 260–2
clean intermittent self-catherisation (CISC), 442
clodronate, 662
coating processing, 26–7
colistin, 656
biomimetic nanocomposites, 178
composite fibres, 141–2
fibrous mesh, 396
gel matrix, 394–6
sponge, 553
triple helices, 171
collagen-based tubular constructs
culture conditions, 612–19
dynamic stimulation of SMCs, 612–13
tissue engineering applications, 589–619
airway tissue replacement, regeneration and modelling, 591–602
cells, 608–12
future trends, 619
type I collagen, 602–8
vascular tissue replacement and regeneration, 590–1
collagen fibrillar density (CFD), 605
colocystoplasty, 445
combining techniques, 215–18
commercial systems, 284
liposomes, 284
polyanhydrides, 284
compacting, 24
composite cystoplasty, 446
composite materials, 116–18
composition-to-elasticity conversion technique
application to ceramic biomaterials, 313–19
cylindrical inclusions oriented along vector and inclined by angels, 314
isotropic Young’s modulus of nanoporous hydroxyapatite, 318
model predictions vs experiments for Poisson’s ratio, 318
model predictions vs experiments for Young’s modulus, 317
RVE of polycrystal representing monoporosity biomaterial made of hydroxyapatite, 314
application to polymeric biomaterials, 319–21
elastic properties related to solid compartment of scaffold, 321
compressive strength, 17
computed tomography (CT), 39–40
composition conversion technique
application to ceramic biomaterials, 305–9
application to polymeric biomaterials, 309–11
image of investigated granule, 306
PLLA-TCP tissue engineering scaffold with 71% macroporosity, 309
probability density function of X-ray attenuation, 307
probability density function of X-ray attenuation-related grey values, 310
SEM images of porous granule and nanoporous polycrystal, 306
conducting polymers, 289
confluent monolayer tubular epithelial cells, 418–19
experimental set-up, 203–5
flatness of field and surface roughness of sample, 207–8
effect of slope on data acquired in z-series, 207
fluorescent labels, 209–10
live cell imaging, 213–15
vital dyes commonly used for CLSM and fluorescence imaging, 214
visualisation of 3D objects using XY and XZ views, 212
opacity and shape of sample, 208–9
principle, 200–3
human osteoblasts grown on biomaterial surface and labelled with FITC, 202
optical pathway showing information from plane of focus, 201
reflectance microscopy, 210
usage for tissue engineering applications, 211
upright vs inverted microscopy, 205–6
depth shape and size artefacts due to pressure, 206
confocal microscopes, 202–3
congenital uterus malformation, 364
consolidation, 24
Continuous Glucose Monitoring System (CGMS), 290–1
continuous haemofiltration, 415–16
continuous monitoring, 290–1
core-shell spinning, 531
coronary heart bypass graft, 590
covalent binding, 282–3
covalent bonding, 9
cross-linking, 607
crystal structure, 9
crystallisation, 84–5
culture medium, 571–2
flow culture conditions, 574
cultured cells
nerve repair, 482–6
SCs, 483–4
stem cells, 484–6
CYP3A4, 574
cystoplasty reconstruction, 362
D
Daunozome, 284
Decapeptyl SR, 284
decellularised tissue matrices, 355–6
deionised water, 20
dendrimers, 281–2
Depocyt, 284
Deponit, 284
Dermagraft, 255
cellular immune response, 258–9
humoral immune response, 258
design criteria
MTE constructs, 391–3
linear stress–strain curves of synthetic polymer and J-shaped of muscle, 392
schematic illustrations of randomly tangled polymer chains and aligned nanofibre, 393
deviatoric stresses, 324
devitrification, 84
diabetes, 288
dicalcium phosphate dihydrate (DCPD), 73
dip coating, 162
direct perfusion bioreactors, 234–8
direct write methods, 235
directional freezing, 161–2
Donann’s membrane equation, 415–16
dopant ions, 74–5
double-stranded RNA (dsRNA), 639
Doxil, 284
doxorubicin, 660
drug carriers
multifunctional scaffolds, 650–3
summary of experimental research, 654
techniques, 651–3
drug degradation, 271–2
drug delivery, 271–2
nanoparticles, 635–7
schematic representation, 636
drug-delivery systems, 174–6
drugs, 637
dual-source dual-power electrospinning, 137–8
Dulbecco’s Modified Eagle Medium (DMEM), 419
Dumon Silicone Stent, 593
Dynamic stent, 593
E
electrical stimulation, 532–3
electromagnetic coils, 218–19
electrospun composite scaffolds
based on natural polymers, 122–7
chitosan (CTS)-hydroxyapatite (HA) composite nanofibres, 122–3
gelatin-HA composite nanofibres, 124–6
silk and HA composite fibres, 126–7
based on synthetic polymers, 127–40
PCL and aluminium oxide (Al2O3) composite fibres, 133–4
PCL and β-tricalcium phosphate (βTCP) composite fibres, 129–31
PCL and calcium carbonate (CaCO3) composite fibres, 128–9
PCL and HA composite fibres, 131
PCL-bioactive glass (BG) composite fibres, 132–3
PLA, HA and graphene oxide (GO) composite fibres, 135–6
PLA and BG composite fibres, 136–7
PLA-HA composite fibres, 137
PLLA, PCL and HA composite fibres, 134–5
PLLA-HA hybrid membranes, 134
poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyvalerate) (PHBV)-HA composite fibres, 140
poly(D,L-lactic acid) (PDLLA), poly(lactic acid co-glycolic acid (PLGA) and Ca-P, 137–9
poly(ε-caprolactone) and silica nanoparticle composite fibres, 127–8
poly(lactide co-glycolyde) (PLG) amorphous tricalcium phosphate composite fibres, 139
polyurethane (PU) and HA composite fibres, 139–40
electrospun scaffolds, 533–4
electrostatic atomisation spray deposition, 26–7
elemental mapping, 216–18
Elispot analysis, 366
emulsion method, 651
endocrine replacement, 359
endocytosis, 638
endoneurium, 469
endothelial vessel network, 375
endotoxinaemia, 427–30
energy-dispersive X-ray methods, 88
energy dispersive X-ray microanalysis, 216–18
energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy, 132–3
Engelbreth–Holm–Swarm (EHS) mouse sarcoma cells, 528–9
engineered chondrocyte technology, 358
engineered heart tissue (EHT), 394–5
enzyme-labelled immunoanalytical techniques, 285–6
EpiAirway, 600
epidermal growth factor (EGF), 571
epineurium, 469
epithelial cells (ECs), 595
Eshelby tensors, 315–16
evaporation-induced self-assembly (EISA), 162
Exactech, 288–9
exogenous stem cell derivatives, 390
expanded polytetrafluoroethylene (ePTFE), 368
external bioreactor, 454–5
extracorporeal liver support, 240–1
devices, 567–8
F
fabrication scaffolds, 393–4
fibrin gel, 531
fibroblasts, 259–62
filtration, 431–2
finite element models, 314–15
finite element simulations, 322–34
first generation biomaterials, 157–8
flame spray, 162
flow bioreactor culture system, 572
schematic diagram, 573
fluorescence microscopy, 200
fluorescence recovery after photobleaching (FRAP), 215
fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET), 215
fluorescent labels, 209–10
fluorescent molecules, 636
fluorescent nanoparticles, 639–40
schematic model, Plate XIII
fluoride, 9–10
fluorophores, 640
foaming, 651
Fourier transform infrared (FTIR), 88
spectra, 124
fracture toughness, 18
free tissue grafts, 447
process, 98–9
freeze extrusion fabrication (FEF), 88–9
Fura-2, 214
Fura Red, 214
fused deposition modelling, 309–10
G
γ-interferon
selective response by fibroblasts in scaffold-based three-dimensional culture, 259–62
HLA Class I and HLA-DR induction in monolayer vs three-dimensional cultures, 259
monolayer vs three-dimensional culture of genes, 260
phosphorylation of STAT-1 and induction comparison of CIITA, 261
gallium, 657
gas aggregation, 162
gas foaming, 443–4
gastrocystoplasty, 445
gatifloxacin, 657
gel-casting method, 24–5
gelatin-HA composite nanofibres, 124–6
SEM micrographs with different contents of HA, 124
TEM micrographs at low and high resolution with 20% and 40% HA, 125
gelatin mesh, 396–7
gene silencing
nanoparticles, 638–9
schematic representation, 639
gene therapy, 525
gene transfer
nanoparticles, 637–8
schematic representation, 637
glass, 25–6
scaffolds, 88–9
glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP), 470
glucagon like peptide (GLP-2), 516
glucose biosensors, 286–9
first generation biosensors, 287–8
second generation biosensors, 288–9
oxidation of glucose at an electrode mediated by ferrocene derivative, 288
third generation sensors, 289
glucose cotransporter-1 (GLT-1), 420–1
gold standard, 472–3
Gore-tex, 479
graft shrinkage, 449–50
graphene oxide (GO) composite fibres, 135–6
green fluorescent protein (GFP), 511–12
grey scale values, 304
growth factors, 515–16
Guardian REAL-Time device, 290–1
guided tissue regeneration, 505–8
H
haematopoietic stem cells (HSCs), 228
haemodialysis (HD), 415–16
hepatocyte growth factor (HGF), 571
hepatocytes
in vitro analysis of function, 572–6
immunofluorescent staining, 576
metabolic function, 572–5
morphology, 575–6
in vitro conditions, 569–72
culture medium, 571–2
fundamentals, 569–70
matrix, 570–1
seeding methods, 571
transplantation, 567
heterogeneous analysis, 324–5
high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), 423
Hill tensors, 315–16
Hill’s lemma, 313
hollow fibre membrane reactors, 238–41
hollow tube regeneration, 473
homogenous analysis, 324–5
human cells reprogramming, 351–2
human foetal osteoblasts (hFOB), 122–3
human pluripotent stem cells, 509
humoral immune response, 258
Hyaff-11, 550
HYALONECT, 398
hyaluronic acid, 549
hydrogen, 9
hydrolysable bonds, 400
hydrophilic polymers, 272–5
structures of poly(glycodide) and poly(lactide), 274
hydrothermal transformation, 25
hydroxy apatite (HA), 9–11
SEM micrographs of attachment of human osteoblast (HOB) cells, 11
hydroxy-carbonate apatite (HCA), 8
globules, 322–3
nanocrystals, 178
I
ileal bile acid transporter (IBAT), 511–12
ileal conduit stoma, 442
ileocystoplasty, 445
immune response
tissue engineered products, 255–62
cellular immune response to Dermagraft, 258–9
humoral immune response to Dermagraft, 258
persistence of implanted allogeneic fibroblasts, 255–8
reasons for lack of rejection of implants, 255
selective response to γ-interferon by fibroblasts in scaffold-based three-dimensional culture, 259–62
immunocytochemical techniques, 219–20
immunogenicity, 262
immunohistochemical staining, 511–12
immunohistochemistry, 394–5
immunosensors, 291–2
implanted allogeneic fibroblasts, 255–8
amplification of SRY sequences, 256
detection of male DNA in biopsies from sites implanted with Dermagraft, 257
in situ drug delivery
examples from 3D scaffolds for bone tissue engineering, 656–62
schematic diagram of different strategies, Plate XIV
SEM image of a Bioglass, 655
multifunctional scaffolds, 648–64
drug carriers, 650–3
future trends, 663–4
in vivo transplantation, 576–8
inflammatory cytokines, 428–9
infrared reflection spectroscopy, 19
ingestion, 272
inhalation, 272
injectable muscle cells, 358–9
injectable scaffolds, 170
injectable systems, 179–81
injection, 272
inkjet-printing, 443–4
innervation, 371–3
inorganic bioactivity, 117
inorganic nanoparticles, 163
inorganic–organic hybrids, 98–9
insulin-like growth factor (IGF), 531
insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1), 374
intelligent hydrogels, 275–7
interfacial tissue engineering, 554
Interferon Response Factor-1 (IRF-1), 260–2
International Association for Cancer Research, 441
interterritorial matrix, 545
intestinal stem cells, 508–9
intrahepatic transplantation, 577
intraluminal structure, 481–2
intravoxel micromechanics
enhanced finite element simulations, 322–34
behaviour of ceramic biomaterial globules, 322–6
behaviour of polymer biomaterial scaffolds, 326–34
voxel-to-element conversion technique, 322
images to mathematical models for ceramics and polymers, 303–35
conversion of material composition into voxel-specific elastic properties, 311–21
conversion of voxel-specific computed tomography data into material composition, 304–11
future trends, 335
ionic substitution, 78
K
kidney, 364–8
functions, 415
tissue engineering, 414–35
bioartificial tubule devices in treatment of acute kidney injuries with endotoxinaemia, 427–30
concept and configuration of bioartificial kidneys, 416–18
development of bioartificial glomerulus, 431–3
development of bioartificial renal tubule devices for long-term treatment, 431
early developments in bioartificial kidney design, 418
flow diagram of bioartificial kidney consists of bioartificial glomerulus and tubule device, 435
future trends, 433–5
limitations of hemodialysis (HD) as renal replacement therapy, 415–16
present developments in bioartificial tubule devices, 418–27
Kirkendall effect, 162
L
large volume cell culturing, 226–8
HSCs, 228
liver tissue, 226–7
laser scanning confocal microscopy, 15
laser spinning, 70–1
Lewis-lung cancer porcine kidney (LLC-PK), 418
light microscopy, 200–2
lipopolysaccharide (LPS), 428
liquid/liquid thermally induced separation technique, 652
live cell imaging, 213–15
liver
potential applications of engineered tissue, 576–81
BAL devices, 578–9
in vivo transplantation, 576–8
special culture dish, 580
toxicology and drug metabolism studies, 579–81
progenitors, 227
tissue engineering, 565–82
future trends, 581–2
in vitro analysis of hepatocyte function, 572–6
in vitro conditions for hepatocytes, 569–72
liver diseases and current treatments, 566–8
liver tissue, 226–7
liver transplantation, 566–7
Lupron Depot, 284
M
macroscopic elasticity format, 313
Madin–Darby canine kidney (MDCK), 418
magnesium (Mg), 10
magnetic nanoparticles, 168
magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), 39–40
massive enterectomy, 513–14
material composition
conversion into voxel-specific elastic properties, 311–21
application of composition-to-elasticity conversion technique to ceramic biomaterials, 313–19
application of composition-to-elasticity conversion technique to polymeric biomaterials, 319–21
fundamentals, 311–13
loading of RVE and structure built up of material defined on RVE, 312
mathematical models
images and intravoxel micromechanics for ceramics and polymers, 303–35
conversion of material composition into voxel-specific elastic properties, 311–21
conversion of voxel-specific computed tomography data into material composition, 304–11
future trends, 335
intravoxel micromechanics-enhanced finite element simulations, 322–34
Matrigel, 528–9
materials, 482
matrix metallo proteinases (MMPs), 607
Matzinger’s view, 262
mechanical behaviour, 8–9
mechanical stimulation, 616
mechanostimulation, 455
Medisense, 288–9
melt moulding, 652
melt-spinning approach, 26
melting, 25–6
dynamic stimulation, 613
bioreactor design for MSC culture, 616
summary of mechanical stimulation parameters, 617–18
mesengenic process, 611
messenger RNA (mRNA), 419–20
metal oxides, 283
metallic bonding, 9
metals, 167–8
methacryloyloxyethyl
phospholylcholine (MPC) polymer, 431
methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus, 94
micelles, 278–80
micro-encapsulation, 53–4
microcarriers, 231–2
microcontact printing technique, 393–4
microdialysis fibre, 290
microemulsions, 162
microfabricated bioreactors, 233–4
microfabrication
process, 172
techniques, 393–4
microfibrous borate bioactive glass, 96
micropatterning, 393–4
microporosity, 308
microRNA, 532
microscopy techniques
cells characterisation on biomaterial surfaces and tissue-engineered constructs, 196–220
combining techniques, 215–18
confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM), 200–15
future trends, 218–20
general considerations and experimental design, 197–200
combining techniques, 215–18
combining live and fixed cell imaging, 217
microsphere immobilisation, 54–8
microsurgery, 533–4
microvascularisation, 234–5
milling, 23–4
MiniMed Paradigm Revel, 292–3
Minitran, 284
mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), 365–6
mitogen-activated kinase kinase
(MEK), 419
Model for End-stage Liver Disease (MELD), 577
Molecular Probes, 213
Mori–Tanaka-type scheme, 319
mouse embryonic fibroblasts (MEFs), 351
mucosectomy, 511
multicentre clinical trial, 358
multifunctional scaffolds
bone tissue engineering and in situ drug delivery, 648–64
drug carriers, 650–3
future trends, 663–4
multiple factor delivery, 58
multiple organ dysfunction syndrome (MODS), 418
Multisense system, 292
muscle grafts, 478
muscle regeneration, 526
myocardial infarction, 389
myocardial tissue engineering, 387–405
biomaterials-based strategies, 390–4
design criteria of MTE constructs, 391–3
fabrication scaffolds, 393–4
causes of human mortality, 388
cell sources, 389–90
future trends, 404–5
potential scaffolding biomaterials, 394–404
research by the number of scientific publications, 388
myocutaneous free flaps, 525
MyoD, 526–7
N
Nafion, 290
nano-encapsulation, 53–4
SEM micrographs of PLGA50-74K microspheres, 53
nanocarriers, 635
tissue engineering, 118–21
effect of various concentrations of microscale and nanoscale particles on Young’s modulus, 120
nanodevices, 160–1
nanofibres, 169–71
nanofibrous scaffolds, 42–7
cartilage formation in osteochondral defect repair, Plate I
patient-specific and anatomically shaped using reverse SFF and phase separation technique, 45
responses of MC3T3-E1 cells on nanofibrous and nonfibrous solid PLLA scaffolds, 46
SEM images and 3D reconstruction of hollow microspheres and solid interior microspheres, 48
SEM images prepared from sugar sphere template leaching and phase separation techniques, 43
SEM micrographs of 3D nanofibrous PLLA scaffolds, 44
nanofillers, 165–6
nanogels, 179–81
nanoparticles, 162–9
TEM images of calcinated Bg-NOs, 165
tissue engineering, 641
nanopatterns, 171–3
nanoscale design
biomineralisation for developing new biomaterials for bone tissue engineering (BTE), 153–84
drug-delivery systems, 174–6
future trends, 183–4
materials and techniques, 161–2
nanocomposites, 176–9
nanofibres and nanotubes, 169–71
nanogels and injectable systems, 179–81
nanoparticles, 162–9
nanopatterns, 171–3
surface functionalisation and templating, 181–3
nanoscale materials, 118–19
nanosphere immobilisation, 54–8
nanosphere-incorporated scaffolds, 57
nanotubes, 169–71
National Cancer Institute, 441
native cells, 348–9
natural carbohydrates, 354
natural extracellular matrix (ECM), 451–2
natural mineralisation process, 172
natural polymeric systems, 398
naturally derived materials, 354–5
neointestinal cysts, 513
neonatal mouse ventricular myocytes (NMVM), 398
nerve guidance conduits (NGCs), 473–81
current clinically approved and future NGCs, 474
development of BGC for repair, 476–7
summary of methods used to design NGCs, 477
natural materials, 477–8
schematic of regeneration mechanism occurring within hollow NGC, 475
synthetic materials, 479–81
nervous system
anatomy, 468
extracellular matrix (ECM), 470–1
neurons, 469
Schwann cells (SC), 470
structural layers, 469
neural stem (NSC) cells, 485
Neuroflex, 476–7
Neurogen, 476–7
Neuromatrix, 476–7
neuromuscular junctions (NMJs), 372
neuronal tissue, 469
neurons, 469
Neville artificial trachea, 594
Nitrodisc, 284
nitroglycerin, 284
normal human urothelial (NHU), 455
nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy, 13
Nyquist sampling theory, 213
O
optimal tissue processing, 218–19
organ engineering
tissue engineering, 347–76
alternate cell sources and stem cells usage, 349–53
biomaterials, 353–7
cellular therapies, 357–9
future trends, 375–6
native cells, 348–9
specific structures, 360–73
vascularisation, 373–5
organ-specific stem cells, 241
organoid units, 509–11
osseointegration, 182
osteoarthritis, 546
osteoblastic progenitor cells (MC3T3-E1), 46–7
osteochondral repair
bioceramic-based scaffolds, 553–5
Ostwald ripening, 162
P
pamidronate, 662
paneth cells, 510
particulate leaching, 443–4
technique, 41–2
patterning techniques, 173
PCL-bioactive glass (BG) composite fibres, 132–3
Pelikan Sun, 288–9
Pelvicol, 450
peptide-based drugs, 279–80
direct bioreactors, 234–8
HA structure and wall on negative copy of microvasculature of HAP core, 237
thermoset resin copy of vasculature of rat liver, 236
hollow fibre membrane reactors, 238–41
large reactor designed for extracorporeal liver support, 239
SEM image of cut section used in bioreactors, 238
microfabricated bioreactors, 233–4
tissue engineering usage, 224–46
bioreactors, 228–41
differentiation lineages for hematopoietic cells, 225
future of large bioreactors through in vitro mimicry of stem cell niche, 241–4
future trends, 244–6
need for large volume cell culturing, 226–8
two-dimensional perfusion bioreactors, 232–3
representation that cultures layers of cells on polymer surfaces, 233
perfusion cell seeding, 571
perineurium, 469
periodic acid Schiff (PAS) reaction, 573
PerioGas, 164–5
peripheral blood mononuclear lymphocytes, 258
peripheral nerve
injury, 471–2
regeneration, 471–2
repair, 472–3
allografting, 473
gold standard of autografting, 472–3
tissue engineering, 468–87
cultured cells for nerve repair, 482–6
further structural optimisation of NGCs, 481–2
nerve guidance conduits (NGCs), 473–81
nerve injury and regeneration, 471–2
peripheral nerve repair, 472–3
peripheral nervous system (PNS), 468
Permacol, 450
Petri dish, 205–6
phase contrast microscopy, 198–9
phase II randomised open label study, 427–8
phase separation, 443–4
techniques, 50
phosphate bioactive glasses, 86
photobleaching, 204–5
photolithography, 172
photomultiplier tube (PMT), 200–2
pig model, 446
plasma treatment, 128–9
platelet-derived growth factor-BB (PDGF-BB), 571
PLLA-HA hybrid membranes, 134
point-of-care testing, 291–2
Poisson’s ratio, 316
poly-3-hydroxybutyrate (PHB), 480
poly-ε-caprolyctone (PCL), 529
poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyvalerate) (PHBV)-HA composite fibres, 140
poly(2-hydroxyethyl methacrylate) (PHEMA), 480
poly(amido amine) (PAMAM), 282
polyanhydrides, 284
polyaniline (PANi), 403
polycrystalline ceramics, 11–12
poly(D,L-lactic acid) (PDLLA) composite fibres, 137–9
-based polymeric platforms, 399
polyethylene terephthalate, 594
Polyflex Esophageal Stent, 593
poly(lactic acid co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) composite fibres, 137–9
poly(lactic-co-glycolide), 398–9
amorphous tricalcium phosphate (ATCP) composite fibres, 139
composite fibres, 139
polymer-based delivery systems, 274
polymer biomaterial scaffolds
behaviour, 326–34
average microstrains in pores, 333
finite element-predicted macroscopic scaffold-related Young’s modulus, 329
first and second order moments of deviatoric stress computed for finite element models, 334
microstrains averaged over solid compartment scaffold, 332
Poisson’s ratio distribution in two orthogonal cross-sections, 330
transverse Poisson’s ratios of macroscopic scaffold, 331
transverse Poisson’s ratios of macroscopic scaffold computed from FE simulations, 332
Young’s modulus distribution in two orthogonal cross-sections, 329
Young’s modulus of macroporous scaffold computed from finite element simulations, 331
polymer coatings, 97
polymer membrane
maintenance of confluent monolayer tubular epithelial cells, 418–19
number of LLC-PK cells per well on 6-well polystyrene plates, 420
prevention of multilayer formation in human primary proximal tubular cells, 421
polymerase chain reaction (PCR), 573
amplification, 256–7
polymeric biomaterials
tissue engineering, 35–59
future trends, 58–9
polymeric scaffolds, 36–51
polymeric scaffolds with controlled release capacity, 51–8
polymeric particulate carriers, 53–4
polymeric scaffold
controlled release capacity, 51–8
micro- and nano-encapsulation, 53–4
nano- and microsphere immobilisation on three-dimensional scaffolds, 54–8
fabrication, 37–40
MC3T3-E1 cell growth on oriented microtubular PLLA scaffold, 40
SEM of PLLA, PLGA scaffold and fabricated in dioxane and benzene, 39
surface modification, 47–9
tissue engineering, 36–51
3D porous architectures, 41–2
nanofibrous scaffolds, 42–7
polymer and apatite composite scaffolds for bone regeneration, 49–51
polymeric scaffold fabrication, 37–40
polymerisation, 652
polymers
images to mathematical models and intravoxel micromechanics for ceramics, 303–35
conversion of material composition into voxel-specific elastic properties, 311–21
conversion of voxel-specific computed tomography data into material composition, 304–11
future trends, 335
intravoxel micromechanics-enhanced finite element simulations, 322–34
polymyxin B, 658
poly(N-isopropylacrylamide), 175
poly(polyol-sebacate) (PPS), 400
polypropylene, 594
polytetrafluoroethylene, 594
polyvinyl alcohol (PVA), 141
pore volume fraction, 118
porosity elasticity, 317–18
porous architectures, 41–2
porous polymer membrane
metabolic and transport properties of proximal tubular epithelial cell layer, 419–24
expression levels of -glutamyltranspherase-1, sGLT-1 and aquaporin-1, 422
flow diagram of in vitro functional evaluation of bioartificial tubule device, 424
glucose transport rate without addition of albumin, 425
scanning electron micrographs of LLC-PK cell layer, 426
porous structures, 38–9
positive-negative casting model, 236–8
potential scaffolding biomaterials, 394–404
alginate mesh, 397–8
collagen fibrous mesh, 396
collagen gel matrix, 394–6
electroactive systems and composites, 402–4
gelatin mesh, 396–7
other natural polymeric systems, 398
overview of biomaterials used in myocardium tissue engineering, 395
poly(ε-caprolactone) (PCL)-based polymeric platforms, 399
poly(glycolic acid) (PGA) and its copolymer with poly(lactic acid) (PLA), 398–9
soft elastomers and poly(polyol-sebacate) (PPS), 400
mechanical properties and their copolymers, 401
powder compression, 652
printing technology, 371
procollagen solution, 605
progenitor cells, 611
Pronectin-F, 423
proteoglycans, 548
proteolytic solutions, 605
proximal tubular epithelial cell layer, 419–24
Q
quantitative histomorphometry, 22
R
radiofrequency (RF) magnetron sputtering, 26–7
radiometric dyes, 214
Raman spectroscopy, 14
techniques, 235–6
reactive ion etching techniques, 172
recombinant bone morphogenetic protein (rhBMP-7), 54–6
reconstructive surgery, 362
reflectance microscopy, 210
region of interest (ROI), 309–10
renal assist device (RAD), 418
renal replacement therapy, 415–16
representative volume element (RVE), 311
responsive hydrogels, 277–8
reverse transcription polymer chain reaction (RT-PCR), 365
Revolnerv, 476–7
ribonucleic acid interference (RNAi) technology, 424–5
RNA-induced silencing complex (RISC), 639
RNA interference (RNAi), 638
rotating wall reactors, 230–1
S
salt-leach technique, 41–2
Sandostatin LAR, 284
satellite cells, 526
scaffold-based three-dimensional culture, 259–62
scaffold selection, 501–5
materials used as scaffold for small intestinal tissue engineering, 502–3
scanning electron microscopy of PLGA foam scaffold, 501
scaffolds
tissue engineering, 69–71
microstructures of three-dimensional scaffolds prepared by variety of methods, 71
SEM images of microfibrous bioactive glass, 71
scanning electron micrograph, 305–6
second generation biomaterials, 158
second generation biosensors, 288–9
seeding methods, 571
seromuscular enterocystoplasty, 445–6
shear modulus, 320
signal transducer and activator of transcription-1 (STAT-1), 260–2
Silastic, 598
silica, 163
silica nanoparticle composite fibres (nSiO2), 127
silica nanoparticles, 164
silicate bioactive glasses, 83–5
silicate substituted hydroxy apatite (SiHA), 10
silicon, 10
silicone, 479
silicone tubes, 593
silk, 126
composite fibres, 126–7
silk fibroin, 599
hydrogels, 551
silver, 659
single-walled carbon nanotubes, 171
sintering, 96
skeletal muscle
characteristics, 526–8
architecture of mature skeletal muscle and extracellular matrix, 526
satellite cells in muscle regeneration, 526–8
defects, 371
innervation, 371–3
pre-fabrication of AChR by agrin treatment, Plate VIII
tissue engineering, 524–34
characteristics of skeletal muscle, 526–8
clinical and scientific applications, 525–6
electrospun scaffolds in vivo and arteriovenous (AV)-loop models in rat, 533–4
future trends, 534
in vivo, 525–6
materials, 528–9
potential scaffolds, 528–31
smart matrices, 531–3
three-dimensional architecture, 529–31
SKYSCAN, 306–7
small-interfering RNA (siRNA), 638
small intestine tissue engineering, 498–518
approaches, 499–501
schematic diagram of structural complexity and various component layers, 500
cell seeding sources, 508–11
combining cells and scaffolds, 511–15
future trends, 516–18
growth factors, 515–16
guided tissue regeneration, 505–8
limitations, 507–8
small intestinal submucosa (SIS), 507
tubular scaffolds, 505–7
scaffold selection, 501–5
smart matrices, 531–3
smart porous membrane, 276
smart synthetic polymers, 356–7
smooth muscle cells (SMCs), 609–10
dynamic stimulation, 612–13
SMC alignment under cyclic strain, Plate XII
summary of dynamic mechanical stimulation parameters, 614–15
sodium-glucose cotransporter-1 (sGLT-1), 420–1
soft elastomers, 400
soft lithography patterning techniques, 233–4
soft tissue repair, 94–6
sol-gel, 652–3
-derived bioactive glasses, 12
deposition, 26–7
route, 162
technique, 119
solid-freeform fabrication (SFF), 39–40
solubilisation, 605
solvent casting, 653
solvent-evaporation, 41–2
somatic cell nuclear transfer, 350–1
spectrochemical analysis, 13
spin coating, 162
spray drying, 23–4
stable transfection, 638
static conditioning, 454–5
static seeding methods, 571
stem cell niche, 509
future of large bioreactors through in vitro mimicry, 241–4
hematopoietic stem cell niche in bone marrow, 242
stem cells, 484–6
nerve repair using adipose derived stem cells and polycaprolactone (PCL), 486
stereolithography, 41–2
stirred tank bioreactors, 230–2
stoichiometry, 6–7
stress–strain curves, 392
strontium (Sr), 10
structural layers, 469
substituted hydroxy apatite, 9–11
sulbactam, 656
sulphated glycosaminoglycans, 545
surface-active molecules, 636
surface analysis, 19
surface functionalisation, 181–3
surface modification, 47–9
surface properties, 161
Surgisis, 507
synchronous contractile activity, 402
synthetic biodegradable polymers, 356–7
synthetic grafts, 452–4
synthetic polymers, 127–40
synthetic scaffold, 501–2
T
target molecules, 636
telocyte, 527–8
telopodes, 527–8
template method, 653
template synthesis, 162
templating, 181–3
tensile strength testing, 17
tetracalcium phosphate (TTCP), 7
tetracycline, 659
thermal evaporation, 162
Thermanox plastic coverslips, 197
thermoresponsive polymers, 275–6
thin-film X-ray diffraction, 19
third generation sensors, 289
three-dimensional architecture, 529–31
three-dimensional scaffolds
nano- and microsphere immobilisation, 54–8
in vitro release kinetics of PDGF-BB and rhBMP-7 from nanospheres, 56
nanofibrous scaffolds with PDGF microspheres, Plate II
new bone formation in rhBMP-7, Plate III
PDGF-containing microspheres in nanofibrous scaffold increases angiogenesis, 57
SEM and laser scanning confocal micrograph of PLGA50-6.5K PLLA nonfibrous scaffold, 55
tissue culture polystyrene (TPCS), 129
tissue defect regeneration, 37
tissue engineered constructs
cells characterisation on biomaterial surfaces using microscopy techniques, 196–220
combining techniques, 215–18
confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM), 200–15
future trends, 218–20
general considerations and experimental design, 197–200
tissue engineered transplantation
cell engineered transplantation, 252–65
autologous vs allogeneic tissue engineering, 263–5
future trends, 265
generality of resistance to immune rejection, 262–3
immune response to products, 255–62
testing and regulatory consequences, 263
tissue engineering
bioactive ceramics and bioactive glasses, 67–101
applications, 80–83
bioactive composites, 97–9
bioactive glass-ceramics, 96–7
future trends, 99–101
preparation and properties, 86–91
properties, 77–80
scaffolds, 69–71
bladder, 361–2
patient reconstructed created with cell-seeded PGA/collagen scaffolds, 363
blood vessels, 368–71
bilayered electrospun PCL/collagen vascular scaffolds, 370
cartilage, 541–56
ceramic biomaterials, 3–28
characteristics, 9–12
future trends, 27–8
microstructure, 12–16
processing, 22–7
properties, 16–22
kidney, 364–8
decellularisation of porcine kidney, 367
liver, 565–82
nanoparticles, 641
organ engineering, 347–76
alternate cell sources and stem cells usage, 349–53
biomaterials, 353–7
cellular therapies, 357–9
future trends, 375–6
native cells, 348–9
vascularisation, 373–5
perfusion bioreactors materials, 224–46
bioreactors, 228–41
future of large bioreactors through in vitro mimicry of stem cell niche, 241–4
future trends, 244–6
need for large volume cell culturing, 226–8
polymeric biomaterials, 35–59
future trends, 58–9
polymeric scaffolds, 36–51
polymeric scaffolds with controlled capacity, 51–8
skeletal muscle, 524–34
specific structures, 360–73
male and female reproductive organs, 362–4
skeletal muscle and innervation, 371–3
urethra, 360–1
tissue engineering therapeutic, 649
tissue regeneration, 180
titanium, 175
total internal reflectance (TIRF), 215
Tracheaobronzane, 593
transdermal, 272
transepithelial electrical resistance (TER), 455
transfection, See gene transfer
transgenic donor cells, 352
transient transfection, 638
transit-amplifying (TA) cells, 508–9
transplanted endothelial cells, 374–5
tropocollagen, 604
tubular dense collagen-based constructs (TDCCs), 602
tubular scaffolds, 505–7
decellularised porcine intestine perfused with blood, Plate XI
neo-intestinal mucosa on decellularised rat colon, Plate X
tumorigenesis, 352
twin screw extrusion-electrospinning (TSEE), 129–30
two-dimensional perfusion bioreactors, 232–3
as biomaterial, 604–8
cell-based collagen gel product, 606
HHC gel mechanical instability and cell-mediated contraction, 607
plastic compression technique, 608
structure, 603–4
hierarchical structure, 604
U
Ultraflex Esophageal NG Stent System, 593
ultrasonication, 134–5
ultraviolet (UV) irradiation, 478
uraemia plasma, 423
urethra, 360–1
neo-urethra implantation and clinical outcomes, Plate VII
urodynamic studies, 452
US Food and Drug Administration (FDA), 37–8
V
vaccination, 636–7
van der Waals, 9
vancomycin, 659
vapour–liquid–solid method, 162
vascular grafting, 368
vascular perfusion approach, 506–7
vascularised tissue grafts, 445–7
bladder augmentation by composite cystoplasty, Plate IX
Vectashield Hard Set, 204–5
vesicles, 278–80
vesicotomy, 442
Vicryl mesh carrier, 446
voxel-specific computed tomography (CT) data
conversion into material composition, 304–11
application of CT-to-composition conversion technique to ceramic biomaterials, 305–9
application of CT-to-composition conversion technique to polymeric biomaterials, 309–11
fundamentals, 304–5
voxel-specific X-ray attenuation coefficients, 304
voxel-to-element conversion technique, 322
W
warfarin monitors, 293
whole organ bioengineering, 366–7
wound-healing, 600
X
X-ray analysis, 19
X-ray attenuation, 309–10
X-ray microanalysis, 14
X-ray microcomputerised tomography, 94
X-ray microtomography (XMT), 16
X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), 13–14
xenogeneic materials, 356
xenotransplantation, 568
Y
Z
zinc substituted hydroxy apatite (ZnHA), 10–11
zirconia, 4–6
zoledronate, 662
..................Content has been hidden....................
You can't read the all page of ebook, please click here login for view all page.