Italic numbers refer to figures.
3:2 pulldown, 19–21, 20, 158–9, 216
4:1:1 format, 56
4:2:0 format:
downsampling filters, 116
Profiles and Levels, 22
serial digital interface, 348–9
4:2:2 format:
downsampling filters, 116
interlace, 279
serial digital interface, 348
16:9 format, 22
1250/50, 248
AAC see MPEG-2 AAC
AAL see Asynchronous transfer mode (ATM), adaptation layers
AC-3 family see Dolby AC-3
Accumulators, 81–2
Adaptive Spectral Perceptual Entropy Coding (ASPEC), 199–200, 208
ADC see Analog-to-digital converters
Additive colour matching, 240
Advanced audio coding (AAC) see MPEG-2 AAC
Advanced Television Systems Committee (ATSC) standards see ATSC
Advanced Video Coding (AVC) (H.264), 5, 288, 328–40
bidirectional coding, 258
de-blocking filters, 343
flashguns, 345
introduction, 26–8
motion compensation, 335–7, 336, 337
multi-rate compression, 354
network abstraction layer, 354, 354
Picture Order Count, 357
profiles, 340
vectors, 255
downsampling filters, 116–17, 117
interlaced scan, 247, 248–9, 248–9, 279
quadrature mirror filtering, 118, 120
sub-band coding, 196
time-domain aliasing cancellation (TDAC), 218–19
Alpha data:
scaleability, 326
video objects and MPEG-4, 288–9, 290, 291
Analog-to-digital converters (ADC):
filters, 94
picture transport, 349
two’s complement system, 78–9, 79
Anharmonic distortion, 65, 65, 196
Animation:
see also Face and body animation
Anti-aliasing filters, 46–50, 46–9, 65, 65
Anti-image filter, 45
Aperture effect, 50–2, 63, 100–1
Apt-X, 199
Arithmetic coding:
shape coding, 298
wavelet transforms, 310, 314, 315
composite video, 37
compression guidelines, 33
compression pre-processing, 32
digital video broadcasting (DVB), 369
drawbacks of compression, 31
editing, 6
floating-point block coding, 195, 195
noise-to-masking ratio (NMR), 190–1
prediction, 12
stereo and surround sound, 222–3
ASPEC see Adaptive Spectral Perceptual Entropy Coding
Asynchronous systems, 397–8, 406, 407–11
Asynchronous transfer mode (ATM), 12, 407–11
adaptation layers (AALs), 411–14
variable rate, 12
ATM see Asynchronous transfer mode
ATRAC, 199
ATSC system:
AC-318, 199
fixed bit rate, 12
transport stream, 383–9, 384, 386
Attentional selectivity, 222–5
Attenuation, 84–5, 104–5, 121–2
band splitting, 117–21
bandwidth, 38
compression applications, 192
compression definition, 4
definition, 35
digital video broadcasting (DVB), 369, 370, 371
floating-point coding, 86
formats, 198–9
gain control, 84–5
level calibration, 33
level metering, 175–7
limits of, 191–2
MPEG applications, 5–7
MPEG Audio, 199–221
MPEG-1, 21
MPEG-2, 24
MPEG-2 AAC, 24
MPEG-4, 26
offset binary, 77
sampling rate, 52–5
SNR, 38
stereo, 221–7
surround sound, 221–7
time stamps, 356
tools, 192–7
see also Digital audio broadcasting; Multiplexing
AVC see Advanced Video Coding
B pictures see Bidirectional pictures
B-VOPs see Bidirectional video object planes
babs see Binary alpha blocks
Background:
video object coding, 301–2, 301
Band splitting, 117–21, 162–3, 198
Band-by-band scanning, 313, 314
Band-limiting filters, 45, 46–50, 46–9
Bandwidth:
aliasing, 46
analog signals, 38
AVC, 330
digital television broadcasting, 368–9
MPEG applications, 366
need for compression, 4, 6, 31–2
sampling rate, 46
telephones, 367–8
Basilar membrane, 180–1, 180, 183–5, 184, 188
Bidirectional (B) pictures, 256–60, 257–60
bidirectional coders, 273–4
concatenation loss, 346–7
noise pumping, 343
slices, 274–5
Bidirectional coding, 256–9, 257
applications, 259–60
AVC, 335
coders, 270–4, 270–3, 281–2, 281
editing and concatenation loss, 346
MPEG-1, 21
MPEG-2, 22, 281–2, 281, 284–6, 285
MPEG-4, 287
Bidirectional video object planes (B-VOPs), 327–8, 328–9
video object coding, 302–3
Binary alpha blocks (babs), 291, 297–9, 300, 301–3, 301
Binary alpha maps, 297–9
Binary coding, 73–83
digital signals, 40
floating-point coding, 85–7
logic elements, 68–70
mesh coding, 319, 320, 322–3, 322
multiplication, 84–5
quantizing, 60–1
sampling rate, 40
shape coding, 297–9
Birdsinging, 65
Bit allocation, 203–4, 206–7, 208, 208
Bit errors, 7, 30–1, 122, 216, 369
Bit rate reduction see Compression
Bit rates:
audio compression, 192
AVC, 330
digital video broadcasting, 370
limits of compression, 191–2
lossless coding, 7
MPEG applications, 366–7, 367, 368
MPEG-1, 21
multiplexing, 362–4
packet multiplexing, 88–9
PCM digital system, 9
timebase correction, 89–91, 90
Bitstreams, 1–2, 29–30, 353–65
Blackman window, 104
Block coding, 195
Blocking effects, 334, 335, 343–4
Blocks:
intra-coding, 260–70
see also Macroblocks
Boundary macroblocks, 289, 291, 297–300
Bounding rectangles, 289, 291, 299, 301, 301
Brightness:
critical flicker frequency, 233, 233
human eye and contrast sensitivity, 238–40
perceptive coding, 8
video signals, 36
Broadband networks, 407–11
Broadcasting:
audio compression, 192
audio level metering, 176
human auditory system, 183
need for compression, 6–7
see also Digital video broadcasting
Buffering:
inter-coding, 17
limits of compression, 192
MPEG Layer III, 209, 210–11, 211
MPEG-1, 21
MPEG-2 AAC, 218
multiplexing, 362–4
timebase correction, 89–91, 90
Burst errors, 379–80, 380, 392
Bytestreams, 354
CABAC see Context adaptive binary arithemtic coding
CAD see Computer aided design
Calibration, codec level, 188–9
CAT see Conditional Access Table
CAVLC see Context adaptive variable length coding
CD-Video, 389–90
CDs see Compact Discs
CELP see Code Excited Linear Prediction
CFF see Critical flicker frequency
Chroma, 37–8
format factor, 57–8
CIF see Common intermediate format
Clocks:
clock references, 359–60
digital video broadcasting, 369
MPEG-2
decoders, 284
multiplexing, 87
phase-locked loops, 58–60
recording, 353
Cocktail party effect, 222–5
Code Excited Linear Prediction (CELP), 220
Codecs:
bidirectional coding, 259
concatenation, 346–52
definition, 1
level calibration, 188–9
limits of compression, 191–2
lossless coding, 7
lossy coding, 7
measurement of audio quality,
perceptive coding, 7–8
performance, 169–70
three-dimensional mesh coding, 323–4, 324
see also Coders; Decoders
Coders:
audio coding, 29
definition, 1
layers, 199–200
low bit rates, 33
motion compensation, 19, 251–5, 252
MPEG-1 and MPEG-2, 281–2
MPEG-2 AAC, 212–18
three-dimensional mesh coding, 323–4, 324
wavelet transforms, 314
Coding:
artifacts, 340–5
audio compression, 28–9, 192–7
MPEG-1, 21
MPEG-2, 21–4
MPEG-4, 24–6
principles of compression, 13–14
see also Advanced Video Coding; Bidirectional coding; Binary coding; Huffman coding; Inter-coding; Intra-coding; Mesh coding; Perceptive coding; Predictive coding; Sub-band coding; Texture coding
Coding distortion, 342–4
Colour:
video types, 36–8
Colour bleed, 343–4
Colour difference systems, 36–8, 37, 240–4, 242, 243
interlace, 278
intra-coding, 264
MPEG-2 decoder, 284
quantizing error, 65
sampling rate, 38
video cameras, 36
Common intermediate format (CIF), 21, 389
Compact Discs (CDs), 4, 54, 389
Companding:
definition, 1
MPEG Layer I, 202–4
MPEG-2 AAC, 216
near-instantaneous, 195
Component systems see Colour difference systems
Composite video, 36–7, 37, 344–5, 344, 349
Compression, 16–18
colour difference, 36–7
composite video, 36–8
Compressors, 1
concatenation, 346–52
drawbacks of, 30–1
guidelines, 32–3
interlaced scan, 249–50
MPEG-1, 21
MPEG-2, 21–4
MPEG-4, 24–6
multi-rate, 354
need for, 3–4
PCM, 40–1
pre-processing, 32
principles, 9–14
processing for, 92–168
requantizing, 162–7
shape coding, 297–9
stereo audio, 221–7
surround sound, 221–7
timebase correction, 89–91, 90
video principles, 14–21
wavelet based, 310–15
see also Inter-coding; Intra-coding; Lossless coding; Perceptive coding; Predictive coding
Computer aided design (CAD), 36
Computer-generated images, 249–50, 315–24
Computers:
binary coding, 76
errors, 31
floating-point coding, 85–7
lossless coding, 7
networks, 397–405
statistical multiplexing, 14
Concatenation, 7, 31, 32, 346–52
Conditional Access Table (CAT), 361, 362
Constant alpha value, 297
Context adaptive binary arithemtic coding (CABAC), 339, 340
Context adaptive variable length coding (CAVLC), 339–40, 339
Context coding, 297–9, 298, 301, 301, 339–40
Contrast, human eye, 238–40
Critical bands:
beats, 188
human auditory system, 181, 184–7
MPEG-2 AAC, 217
noise-to-masking ratio (NMR), 190–1
sub-band coding, 198, 201–2, 203
Critical flicker frequency (CFF), 233, 233, 238, 247
D-2 DVTR, 56
D-type latches, 71, 72, 73, 74
DAB see Digital audio broadcasting
DACs see Digital-analog converters
Data reduction see Compression
Datacines, 21
dBs see deciBels
DCC see Digital Compact Cassette
DCT see Discrete cosine transform
De-blocking filters, 334, 335, 338, 338, 343
De-interlacing, 20–1, 161–2, 162, 280
deciBels (dBs), 170–5, 172, 182–3
quadrature mirror filtering, 118–20, 121
wavelet transforms, 144–5, 144, 146
Decode time stamp (DTS), 355–7, 355–7
Decoders:
bidirectional coding, 259
convolution, 97
definition, 1
face and body animation, 325–6, 325
film-originated material, 20–1
MPEG Layer II, 208
MPEG-2 AAC, 216
MPEG-4, 5, 24, 25–6, 25, 289, 290
MPEG-4 AAC, 220–1
synchronization, 353–5
three-dimensional mesh coding, 319, 323–4, 324
video objects, 289, 290, 302, 303
wavelet transforms, 310–11, 314
Delaunay mesh, 305
Demultiplexing, 87
defined by MPEG, 3
Program Specific Information, 361–2, 361
DFT see Discrete Fourier transform
Differential coding:
composite video, 37–8
inter-coding, 16–18
slices, 274–5
Differential quadrature phase-shift keying (DQPSK), 371–2, 371
Differentiation, 83, 83, 144–5
Difficult source data, 7
Digital audio broadcasting (DAB), 54, 199–200
Digital Betacam, 15, 30, 36, 56
Digital Compact Cassette (DCC), 28
‘Digital look’, 52
Digital optical disks, 389–94
Digital processing, 67–9
binary coding, 73–83
definition, 70
gain control, 84–5
multiplication, 84–5
storage elements, 71–3
Digital signals, 38–41
Digital video broadcasting (DVB), 369–81
audio sampling rate, 54
fixed bit rate, 12
MPEG Layer II, 200
MPEG-2, 4
transforms, 96
Digital video/versatile disk (DVD), 389–94, 391
audio compression, 199
datacines, 21
MPEG-2, 4
storage capacity, 6
Digital-analog converters (DACs):
filters, 94
picture transport, 349
Discrete cosine transform (DCT), 16, 137, 138–40
audio compression, 197
coding, 28–9
concatenation loss, 347–8, 347
elementary streams, 282–3, 283
intra-coding, 260–4, 261, 263–4, 265–70
motion compensation, 279
padding, 300
quantizing distortion, 342–3
shape coding, 297
slices, 274–5
texture coding, 292–7, 292, 293
transforms, 96
wavelet transforms, 313–15, 314
Discrete Fourier transform (DFT), 132–5, 133, 134
discrete cosine transforms, 138–40, 142
phase correlation, 153–7
Discrete frequency transform (DFT), 197
Discrete wavelet transform (DWT), 313–15, 314
Distortion, 342–4
companding, 193–4
floating-point block coding, 195, 195
MPEG Layer I, 202–5
MPEG-2 AAC, 216–17
quantizing, 64–5, 65, 196, 342–4
requantizing, 166
sub-band coding, 196
warping, 123–4
Divide-by two counters, 73, 74
Dolby AC-3 family, 29, 199, 218–19, 219, 225
Double precision, 86–7
Downsampling filters, 116–17, 117
DQPSK see Differential quadrature phase-shift keying
Drift, 350
DTS see Decode time stamp
Duality, transforms, 129–32
DVB see Digital video broadcasting
DVD see Digital video/versatile disk
DWT see Discrete wavelet transform
Dynamic resolution, 234–8, 246–7, 247, 248
Ear see Human auditory system
Early token release (ETR), 404–5
EAROMs see Electric alterable ROMs
Editing:
bidirectional coding, 259–60, 260
concatenation loss, 346–7
film-originated video compression, 20
inter-coding, 15
intra-coding, 15
motion compensation, 150
need for compression, 6
predictive coding, 255–6
Electric alterable ROMs (EAROMs), 73
Elementary streams, 29, 30, 282–3, 283
digital video broadcasting (DVB), 369, 370, 371
MPEG-1, 21
multiplexing, 362–4
Program Specific Information, 361, 361
transport stream packets, 358, 358
Encoders:
AVC, 331
bidirectional coding, 259
companding, 193
synchronization, 353–5
video object coding, 301–3, 301
End of block (EOB), 266, 267, 267, 269, 284
Energy dispersal, 373
Entropy:
limits of compression, 191–2
EOB see End of block
Equiripple filter, 104
Equivalent rectangular bandwidth (ERB), 186–7, 186
ERB see Equivalent rectangular bandwidth
Error correction:
digital video broadcasting (DVB), 369–70, 370, 372, 379–80, 380
OFDM, 378
Errors:
compression guidelines, 33
drawbacks of compression, 30–1
networks, 400
predictive coding, 255–6
propagation, 31
quantizing error, 61–5
see also Bit errors; Prediction error; Quantizing errors
Ethernet, 398, 399, 402–3, 402
ETR see Early token release
Expanders, definition, 1
colour difference signals, 244
contrast, 238–40
dynamic resolution, 234–8, 236
motion compensation, 150
perceptive coding, 8
Face and body animation (FBA), 24, 25, 288, 324–6, 368
Facial animation parameters (FAPS), 325, 325
Facial definition parameters (FDP), 325, 325
FAPS see Facial animation parameters
Fast Fourier transform (FFT), 132, 135–6, 136–41, 137
DVB receiver, 383
MPEG Layer I, 203–4
OFDM, 378
FBA see Face and body animation
FDP see Facial definition parameters
FFT see Fast Fourier transform
Field-pictures, 276–8, 276, 277, 279
Film-originated material, 19–21
eye tracking, 237
motion compensation, 149, 158–9, 158, 159
scaleability, 25
Filter decimators, wavelet transforms, 144–5, 144
Filters:
blocking artifacts in AVC, 334, 335
camera-shake compensation, 161
downsampling, 116–17
interpolation, 107–16
loop filters, 360
processing for compression, 92–5
video noise reduction, 121–2
warping, 126
see also Finite-impulse response filters; Low-pass filters; Reconstruction filters
Finite-impulse response (FIR) filters, 97–106, 100
interpolation, 109–12, 109–11, 114
quadrature mirror filtering, 117–21
warping, 129
FIR filters see Finite-impulse response
FireWire, 399, 405–7, 405, 406
Flashguns, artifacts, 345
Flexible Macroblock Ordering (FMO), 329–30, 330, 340
Floating-point coding, 85–7, 194–6, 194
FMO see Flexible Macroblock Ordering Folded filters, 106, 106
Forest split operation, 318, 318
Fourier transforms, 129–30, 132–8, 146, 147, 149
aperture effect, 50–2
coding, 28–9
MPEG Layer I, 203
phase correlation, 153–7
windowing, 140
Fractional-ratio conversion, 107, 108, 112–15, 115
Frame rates:
background strobing, 238
film-originated video, 19–21, 20
scaleability and MPEG-4, 25
Frame-pictures, 276–8, 276, 277
Frames:
definition in MPEG, 230
numbers, 357
Frequency discrimination, 183–4, 187–8
Frequency domain:
FIR filters, 102
human auditory system, 178, 181, 182–7, 186
transform coding, 28–9
wavelet transforms, 143–4, 143, 146
Fringing, 343–4
Generation loss, 32
Genlocking, 3, 58–60, 353, 359–60
Ghost cancellor, 376
GOPs see Groups of pictures
GOVs see Groups of video object planes
Gradient matching, 152–3
Granulation, 65
Groups of pictures (GOPs), 256, 258–60, 259, 260
ATLANTIC system, 350
bidirectional coders, 272
buffering, 282
concatenation loss, 346–7
definition, 17–18
elementary streams, 282–3, 283
perceptive coding, 9
switching slices, 331
Groups of video object planes (GOVs), 259–60, 260, 288
Guard intervals, 376, 377–8, 381, 383
H.264 see Advanced Video Coding
Hard disks, errors, 31
Harmonic Vector eXcitation Coding (HVXC), 220
Harmonics:
HAS see Human auditory system
HDTV see High-definition television
Headers, 211, 355, 355, 358, 358
Hearing see Human auditory system
Heisenberg inequality, 132, 184–5, 209
Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle, 143–4, 153, 178
Helper signals, 22–3
‘High for a one’ system, 69–70
High-definition television (HDTV), 6, 23, 23
bit errors, 31
MPEG-2, 284
MPEG-2 AAC, 217–18
MPEG-4 AAC, 221
Human auditory system (HAS), 169
audio level metering, 176
beats, 187–8
critical bands, 184–7
frequency discrimination, 183–4
level and loudness, 182–3
stereo and surround sound, 222–3
weighting filter, 175
HVXC see Harmonic Vector eXcitation Coding
I coding see Intra-coding
I pictures see Intra pictures
I-VOPs see Intra video object planes
IEC see International Electrotechnical Commission
IIR filters see Infinite-impulse response filters
Image-stabilizing cameras, 159, 160
Impedance:
deciBel, 173
ear, 178–9
Impedance matching, 173–4, 173
Impulse response:
FIR filters, 97–106
human auditory system, 185, 185
IIR filters, 100
quadrature mirror filtering, 118, 119
Impulse response testing, 94–5, 95
In-loop de-blocking AVC, 334, 335, 338, 339
Infinite-impulse response (IIR) filters, 100, 100
Insertion loss, 175
Integer-ratio conversion, 107, 108–14, 108, 109, 114
Intensity stereo, 223
Inter-coding (temporal coding), 15, 15, 16–18
artifacts, 343
AVC, 331
compression principles, 14, 15
concatenation, 346–52
film-originated video compression, 20
motion compensation, 18–19
padding, 300
switching slices, 330–1
texture coding, 292, 294–7, 295
time stamps, 355–7
Interlace, 8, 8, 245–50, 275–81
bidirectional coders, 271
compression guidelines, 33
compression pre-processing, 32
concatenation loss, 348
digital video broadcasting (DVB), 369
DVD, 389
eye tracking, 237
film-originated video compression, 20–1
Flexible Macroblock Ordering, 330
generation loss, 32
MPEG-1, 21
Interleaving:
digital video broadcasting, 379–80, 380, 381
DVD, 392
MPEG-2 AAC, 221
video types, 36–7
International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC), 199
International Standards Organization (ISO), 1, 199
International Telecommunications Union (ITU), 5
Interpolation, 107–16
AVC, 335
bidirectional coding, 258
motion estimation, 151–2
wavelet transforms, 145
Intersymbol interference, 375
Intra (I) pictures, 17–18, 17, 255–6, 260–70
bidirectional coding, 257, 258–60, 258–60, 272–4
concatenation loss, 346–7
MPEG-2, 22
MPEG-2
noise pumping, 343
personal video recorders, 396–7
slices, 274–5
Intra video object planes (I-VOPs), 327–8, 328, 329
video object coding, 302–3
Intra-coding (I-coding; spatial coding), 15, 15, 260–70
compression principles, 14, 15, 15
film-originated video compression, 20
mesh coding, 304
MPEG-4, 287, 292–4, 293, 294, 296
padding, 300
switching slices, 330–1
texture coding, 292–4, 293, 294, 296
video object coding, 301–3, 301
Inverse transforms, 262–4, 262
ISO see International Standards Organization
Isochronous systems, 369, 398, 402, 407
ITU see International Telecommunications Union
ITU-601, sampling rates, 56, 58
Jitter, 38–9, 42, 68, 116, 360
Joint Photographic Experts Group (JPEG), 15, 16
Joint Video Team (JVT), 5
Judder, 148–9, 158–9, 158, 345
JVT see Joint Video Team
Kaiser-Bessel-derived (KBD) windows, 214
Laser disks, transform pairs, 130–1, 131
Leaky predictors, 16–18
Lempel-Ziv-Welch (LZW) lossless codes, 14, 30–1
Levels:
H.264, 28
Line-up, 175–7
Linear quantizing see Uniform quantizing
Linear-phase systems, 154, 154, 155
Linearity:
dither, 65–7
Local area networks (LANs), 398
Logarithms, 172
deciBel, 170–3
human auditory system, 182, 183–4, 184
Lossless coding, 7
AVC, 288
intra-coding, 260–1
LZW, 14
MPEG-2 AAC, 212
OBMC, 296
reducing bit rate, 342
sign extension, 164
texture coding, 24
wavelet transform, 311
Lossy coding, 7–8
audio, 221
concatenation, 346–52
wavelet transform, 311
Loudness, human auditory system, 182–3
Loudspeakers:
codec level calibration, 189
measurement of audio quality, 190
stereo audio, 223–7, 224, 227 ‘Low for a one’ system, 69–70
Low-latency sprite coding, 308–10, 309, 310
Low-pass filters:
interpolation, 109–11, 109, 110
phase-locked loops, 59
progressive scan, 245
quadrature mirror filtering, 117–21
colour difference signals, 241–4, 242, 243
compression principles, 15
MPEG-2
decoder, 284
phase correlation, 153–4
quantizing error, 65
sampling rates, 56–7
LZW see Lempel-Ziv-Welch
Macroblocks, 24, 252–5, 253–5 AVC, 329–30, 330, 335–7, 336, 339
bidirectional coding, 256–9, 257, 258, 259
interlace, 276–8
intra-coding, 256, 261, 269, 269
motion compensation, 335–7, 336
MPEG-2
slices, 274–5
video object coding, 289, 301, 301, 303
see also Boundary macroblocks Manifolds, 321
Mantissae, 85, 86, 194–5, 194, 219
Mapping, addresses, 124–5
Masking:
codec level calibration, 188–9
human auditory system, 169, 181, 184
limits of compression, 191–2
MPEG Layer II, 206
MPEG Layer III, 209–10
MPEG-2 AAC, 216–18
noise-to-masking ratio (NMR), 190–1
perceptive coding in audio, 28
stereophonic systems, 222–5
MDCT see Modified discrete cosine transform
Measurement:
deciBel, 170–5
human auditory system, 178
Memory see Storage elements
face and body animation, 324–6
image rotation, 345
three-dimensional, 315–24
Metal oxide semiconductor (MOS), 71
Metering, audio, 175–7
Mezzanine level compression, 31
Microphones, 35, 183, 185, 189
Modified discrete cosine transform (MDCT):
audio compression, 197
MPEG Layer III, 208–10
TDAC, 218
Modulation:
OFDM, 96, 376–9, 376, 377, 381
see also Pulse code modulation; Quadrature amplitude modulation Modulo arithmetic, 75
MOS see Metal oxide semiconductor Motion:
blur, 235
human eye, 234–8
interlace, 247–9, 248–9, 276, 278
MPEG-1, 21
recursion smear, 121–2
Motion compensation (MC), 18–19, 147–59, 251–5
bidirectional coding, 256–9, 257
coding artifacts, 345
film-originated material, 19–21, 20, 158–9, 158, 159
frame rate, 238
interlace, 279–81
motion estimation, 150–7
MPEG-1, 21
MPEG-4, 24–5, 254–5, 294–7, 295
noise pumping, 343
personal video recorders, 396
video object coding, 301–3, 301, 302
Motion estimation, 148, 150–7, 251–4, 252
filtering for video noise reduction, 122
Motion JPEG, 15
Moving Pictures Experts Group (MPEG), 1, 5, 199
standards see MPEG…
MP3 see MPEG Layer III MPEG:
applications, 366–414
colour difference signals, 244
film-originated material, 158–9
interlaced scan, 249–50
redundancy, 250–5
MPEG Audio Layers, 199–221
MPEG Layer I audio coding, 200, 201–6
MPEG Layer II audio coding, 200, 206–8
stereo audio, 225
MPEG Layer III audio coding, 200, 208–11
discrete cosine transform (DCT) coding, 29
stereo audio, 225
audio coding, 200–1
bidirectional coding, 258, 259–60, 260, 270–4, 270–3
CD-Video, 389
coders, 281–2
discrete cosine transform (DCT), 16
interlace, 275
limits of compression, 191
motion compensation, 252–3
MPEG-2
decoders, 283
MPEG-2, 4
audio coding, 200–1
bidirectional coding, 258, 259–60, 260, 270–4, 270–3
bitstreams, 30
concatenation loss, 348
digital television broadcasting, 368–9
discrete cosine transform (DCT), 16
DVD, 389–94
elementary streams, 282–3, 283
image rotation, 345
intra-coding, 256, 260, 265–70
limits of compression, 191
motion compensation, 252–3, 279
multi-rate compression, 354
picture transport, 349
recompression, 350
sampling structures, 57–8
transport streams, 357–9
MPEG-2
AAC (advanced audio coding), 24, 201, 212–18, 221
frequency prediction, 29
MPEG-4, 26
AAC, 212
audio coding, 219–20
bidirectional coding, 259–60, 260, 271
discrete cosine transform, 16
face and body animation, 324–6
image rotation, 345
interlace, 275
intra-coding, 260
mesh coding, 303–8, 318–19, 319
motion compensation, 254–5
sampling structures, 57
scaleability, 326–8
telephones, 368
video object coding, 288–91, 302–3, 302
wavelet transforms, 16, 310–15
MPEG-4
AAC, 220–1
MPEG-4
Part 10 see Advanced Video Coding Multi-rate compression, 354
Multipath reception, 375–9, 376, 379
digital video broadcasting, 369–70, 371
MPEG-2, 21
Program Clock Reference, 359–60
Program Specific Information, 361–2, 361
transport streams, 357–9, 358, 362–4
Multiplications:
filtering for video noise reduction, 121–2
interpolation, 109–10
NAL see Network Abstraction Layer; Network Application Layer Natural sound, 220
Network Abstraction Layer (NAL), 354
Network Application Layer (NAL), 330
Network Information Table (NIT), 361–2, 361
Networks, 397–401
NICAM, 54
NIT see Network Information Table
NLL see Numerically locked loop
NMR see Noise-to-masking ratio
Noise:
compression pre-processing, 32
digital video broadcasting, 372
distortion distinction, 342–3
dither, 65–7
drawbacks of compression, 31
filtering for video noise reduction, 121–2
gamma, 8
interpolation, 116
intra-coding, 16, 260, 264–5, 264
motion compensation, 149–50, 149
noise-to-masking ratio (NMR), 190–2, 190, 204
perceptual noise substitution (PNS), 220–1
prediction, 10–11
quantizing error, 63–4, 64, 65
requantizing, 23, 23, 164–5, 166–7
scaleability, 25
sub-band coding, 196, 203–4, 203
Noise pumping, 343–4
Noise-to-masking ratio (NMR), 190–2, 190, 204
Non-uniform quantization, 164–5, 210
Non-volatile RAMs (NVRAMs), 71
interlaced scan, 248
picture transport, 349
sampling, 56
Numerically locked loop (NLL), 59–60, 60, 359–60
NVRAMs see Non-volatile RAMs
Nyquist frequency, 46, 48, 52–3
Object coding, 24, 24, 25, 230, 301–3, 302
OBMC see Overlapped block motion compensation
OFDM see Orthogonal frequency digital modulation
Off-line editing, 6
Ohm’s law, 171
On-line editing, 6
Opaque macroblocks MPEG-4, 289, 291
camera-shake compensation, 160–1, 161
dynamic resolution and the eye, 234–8, 236
film-originated material, 19–21, 20, 158–9, 158
interlace, 161–2, 162, 247–9, 248–9
judder, 345
mesh coding, 303
motion compensation, 147–50, 149, 161–2, 162
motion estimation, 150–7
MPEG, 251
Orthogonal frequency digital modulation (OFDM), 96, 376–9, 376, 377, 381
Oscillators, phase-locked loops, 58–60, 59, 60
Overlapped block motion compensation (OBMC), 294–7, 295
P pictures see Predicted pictures
Packet Identification Codes (PIDs), 358–9, 358
DVB receiver, 383
Program Clock Reference, 359
Program Specific Information, 361–2, 361
remultiplexers, 365
Packetized elementary stream (PES), 355–7, 355, 357
Packets:
multiplexing, 87, 88–9, 88, 362–4, 364
remultiplexers, 365
synchronization, 354–5
time stamps, 355–7
Packing, 89
Padding, 299–300, 301–2, 301, 302
interlaced scan, 248
picture transport, 349
sampling, 56
Partitions, 321–2, 324, 335–7, 336
PAT see Program Association Table
PCM see Pulse code modulation
PCR see Program Clock Reference
Peak Program Meter (PPM), 176, 177
auditory masking, 28
coding in perceptive codes, 14
limits of compression, 191–2
perceptive coding, 7–8
vision, 232–3
see also Human auditory system; Human vision
Perceptive coding, 7–8
AC-3, 219
audio, 28–9
coding, 14
colour video signals, 36
human hearing, 169
masking, 188–9
MPEG Layer III, 209–10
Perceptual noise substitution (PNS), 220–1
Persistence of vision, 233, 245
Personal video recorders (PVRs), 394–7, 395
Perspective, 24–5, 126–9, 303–8
PES see Packetized elementary stream
Phase correlation, 137, 153–7, 156, 157
Phase-locked loops, 58–60
Phase-shift keying (PSK), 371–3, 371
Picture Order Count (POC), 357
Picture size, 21–4, 22, 41, 42, 116–17
Picture transport mechanisms, 348, 349
Pitch correction, 53
Pitch discrimination, 181, 184, 186–7, 186
Pixels:
compression principles, 14
discrete cosine transform (DCT), 139–40, 143
downsampling filters, 116–17
intra-coding, 261–3
mesh coding, 303
motion-compensated de-interlacing, 161–2
MPEG-2, 22
picture size in MPEG-1, 21
sampling rates, 58
shape coding, 297–9
‘square’, 58
texture coding in MPEG-4, 291–7
wavelet transforms, 144–5
Place theory, 181
PMT see Program Map Table
PNS see Perceptual noise substitution
POC see Picture Order Count
Point spread function, 92–3, 93
Polyphase bandsplitting, 120–1, 121
MPEG Layer I, 201–4
MPEG Layer II, 206
MPEG Layer III, 208–9
Posterization, 65
PPM see Peak Program Meter
Pre-echo, 195, 195, 209–11, 214
Precedence effect, 181, 223, 225
Predicted (P) pictures, 255–6, 256
bidirectional coding, 257, 258–60, 258–60, 273–4
inter-coding, 17–18
motion compensation, 279–80, 337
noise pumping, 343
personal video recorders, 396–7
slices, 274–5
Predicted video object planes (P-VOPs), 327–8, 328, 329
OBMC, 294
video object coding, 302–3
Prediction error (residual), 10, 12
artifacts, 342
AVC, 337
bidirectional coding, 257, 271–4
coding artifacts, 342
flashguns, 345
motion compensation, 19, 251–4, 252, 253, 279
noise pumping, 343
recompression, 350
shape coding, 298–9
Predictive coding, 9–12, 10, 251–5
artifacts, 340–2
audio coding, 29
AVC, 292–7, 293, 295, 296, 331–4, 337, 338
bidirectional coding, 256–9, 257
concatenation loss, 346–7, 347
inter-coding, 16–18
mesh coding, 25, 305–8, 306, 307
motion compensation, 19, 279–81, 280
MPEG-2 AAC, 212, 213, 214–16, 215
MPEG-4, 25, 287, 292–7, 293, 295, 296
recompression, 350
texture coding, 24, 292–7, 293, 295, 296
video object coding, 302–3, 302
Presentation time stamp (PTS), 355–7, 355, 356, 357
Processing for compression, 92–168
Profiles:
MPEG-2 AAC, 212
Program Association Table (PAT), 361–2, 361, 363, 365, 383
Program Clock Reference (PCR), 359–60, 360
digital video broadcasting, 369, 383
remultiplexers, 365
Program Map Table (PMT), 361, 361, 363, 365, 383
Program Specific Information (PSI), 361–2, 361
digital video broadcasting, 370, 371
multiplexing, 363
remultiplexers, 365
Program streams, 29–30, 30, 359–60
Progressive scan, 245, 245, 249
DVD, 389
eye tracking, 237
residual image and MPEG, 251
Pseudo-random sequence (PRS), 373–5, 375, 380
Pseudo-video systems, 53–4
PSI see Program Specific Information
Psychoacoustic models, 169
critical bands, 184–7
perceptive coding, 7–8
stereophonic systems, 222–3
PTS see Presentation time stamp
Pulse code modulation (PCM), 38–41, 39
bit rate, 9
filtering, 95
noise, 10–11
SNR, 192
sub-band coding, 197–8
PVRs see Personal video recorders
QMFs see Quadrature mirror filters
QPSK see Quadrature phase-shift keying
Quadrature, 43
Quadrature amplitude modulation (QUAM), 373, 374, 381
Quadrature mirror filters (QMFs), 117–21, 206, 208
Quadrature phase-shift keying (QPSK), 371, 372, 381
Quality, audio, 169, 178, 189–91, 227
QUAM see Quadrature amplitude modulation
auditory masking, 28
AVC, 337
companding, 193–4
concatenation loss, 347–8, 347
FIR filters, 102
MPEG Layer I, 204
MPEG Layer III, 210–11, 210, 211
multiplication, 85
sub-band coding, 28
three-dimensional mesh coding, 317
wavelet transforms, 310, 311, 314, 315
Quantizing error, 61–7, 165–7, 264–5
Quantizing noise/distortion, 63–4, 64, 342–4
floating-point block coding, 195, 195
sub-band coding, 196
Quincunz pattern, 246–7
Random access memories (RAMs), 71, 72, 89–90, 390–3, 395
Random errors, 379–80, 380, 392
Randomizing, 96, 373–5, 375, 384
Read-only-memories (ROMs), 71–3
Receivers:
Recompression, 347, 350–2, 364–5, 364
Reconstruction, 46–50
wavelet transforms, 145
zero-order hold system, 50–2
Reconstruction filters, 45, 46–50
convolution, 97
interpolation, 111
quadrature mirror filtering, 118, 118
zero-order hold system, 51
Recursion smear, 121–2
Recursive filters see Infinite-impulse response (IIR) filters
Redundancy:
compression pre-processing, 32
drawbacks of compression, 30–1
errors, 31
inter-coding, 15
motion compensation, 18–19
MPEG, 250–5
Reed-Solomon codes, 379, 380, 383, 384
Reference pictures, 19
Reflections, radio signals, 375–9, 376, 379
Remez exchange algorithm, 104
Remultiplexing, 364–5
Rendering, 25–6, 25, 27, 316–24, 325
AC-3, 219
buffers, 281–2
concatenation loss, 347–8, 347
floating-point block coding, 195
measurement of audio quality, 189–90
MPEG Layer II, 206–8
recompression, 350
Residual see Prediction error
Resolution:
colour difference signals, 244
human vision, 231, 232, 234–8, 234
MPEG-2, 22
wavelet transforms, 144–5, 310–15, 311–13
Retina, 231–4, 231, 237–8, 240, 241
Reverberation, 185, 186, 223–5, 224
Reverse gamma function, 238–9, 239
RGB component systems see Colour difference systems
RLC/VLC see Run-length coding/variable-length coding
ROM see Read-only-memory
Run-length coding/variable-length coding (RLC/VLC), 266–70, 267–8, 281–2, 292
S-VOPs see Static video object planes
Saccadic motion, 232–3
Sampling, 41–6
aperture effect, 50–2
bandwidth, 46
colour difference signals, 56–8
convolution, 97
data rate, 191
dither, 67
FIR filters, 102
human eye, 236–7
human vision, 232–3
interpolation, 107–16
mesh coding, 303
quadrature mirror filtering, 117–21
reconstruction, 46–50
video, 56–8
Sampling clocks, 38–9, 56, 59, 89
Scale factor bands, MPEG-2 AAC, 164, 216–17, 217
Scale factor select information (SCFSI), 207
Scale factors:
requantizing, 164
Scaleability:
mesh coding, 304
three-dimensional mesh coding, 318
wavelet transform, 310–15
Scaleable sampling rate (SSR), 212
Scanning:
Flexible Macroblock Ordering, 329–30
video standards, 36
wavelet transform, 310
zerotrees, 312–13
see also Interlace; Progressive scan; Zig-zag scan
SCFSI see Scale factor select information
SCR see System Clock Reference
SDH see Synchronous digital hierarchy
SDI see Serial digital interface
SDTV see Standard definition television
Separability, 125–6
Serial digital interface (SDI), 348–9, 349
Shannon reconstruction, 46–7, 47, 50
Shape coding, 297–9
mesh coding, 307, 308, 316, 316, 317
video object coding, 301–3, 301, 302
Shift registers, 71, 89, 101–2, 101
Short-term Fourier transform (STFT), 132, 136–7
Sidebands, sampling, 44–6, 44, 45
Signal-to-noise ratio (SNR):
analog signals, 38
digital video broadcasting, 371–2
floating-point coding, 194–5, 194
requantizing, 23
Single program transport stream (SPTS), 29, 30, 357
Picture Order Count, 357
SONET see Synchronous optical network
Sound objects, 220
Sound pressure level (SPL):
codec level calibration, 188–9
human auditory system, 182–3
Source coding scheme, 370, 370, 371
Spatial coding see Intra-coding
Spatial filters, 45
Spatial luminance gradient, 152–3
SPL see Sound pressure level
Splines, 317
SPTS see Single program transport stream
SSR see Scaleable sampling rate Standard definition television (SDTV), 22, 23, 23
Static video object planes (S-VOPs), 308–10, 309, 310
Statistical multiplexing, 12–14, 88–9, 359, 363–4, 363
STFT see Short-term Fourier transform
Storage elements, 68–9, 68, 71–3
accumulators, 81–2
timebase correction, 89–91
Strobing, 148
AC-3, 218–19
quadrature mirror filtering, 120
requantizing, 164
wavelet transform, 311–15, 312
Subcarriers, 37–8, 37, 344–5, 344
Sum/difference format, 216
Surround sound, 221–7
Switching, 212, 213, 340, 350–2, 351
Switching slices, 330–1
SX DVTR, sampling, 56
Synchronization:
digital video broadcasting, 369
multiplexing, 3
patterns, 354–5
phase-locked loops, 58–60
Program Clock Reference, 359–60
transmission of MPEG bitstreams, 353–5
Synchronous digital hierarchy (SDH), 408, 410
Synchronous optical network (SONET), 408, 410
System Clock Reference (SCR), 359–60, 360
Tape, errors, 31
Tape recorders, 175–6
TDAC see Time-domain aliasing cancellation
Telecine machines, 19–21, 20, 159–60
Telephones:
impedance, 170
limits of compression, 191–2
MPEG applications, 367–8
quantizing, 60
Television:
audio sampling rate, 54
binary coding, 76
bitstreams, 29–30
film-originated video, 19–21, 20
intra-coded compression, 16
linear-phase systems, 154
motion estimation, 151
Motion JPEG, 15
video signals, 35–6
see also Digital video broadcasting; Standard definition television
Temporal coding see Inter-coding
Temporal noise shaping (TNS), 214
Texture coding:
mesh coding, 304–5, 307, 308, 316, 316
motion compensation, 24
shape coding, 299
video object coding, 301–3, 301, 302
video object planes, 288–9, 290
Texture padding, 300, 301–2, 301, 302
Thermal noise, 64
Three-dimensional mesh coding, 315–24
Time division multiplexed (TDM), 397–8, 406
Time domain:
aliasing, 46
predictive coding, 29
wavelet transforms, 143–4, 143, 146
see also Inter-coding
Time stamps, 355–7
digital video broadcasting, 369
DVB receiver, 383
MPEG-2 decoder, 286
Time-domain aliasing cancellation (TDAC), 218–19
Time-domain audio waveform, 28–9
Timebase correction, 38–9, 42, 89–91, 344
TNS see Temporal noise shaping
Trailing ones (T1s), 339–40, 339
Training sequence, 376
Transcoding, 242–3
audio compression, 196–7
composite video, 37
intra-coding, 260–5
MPEG Layer III, 208
phase correlation, 153–7
redundancy, 163
requantizing, 164
time-domain aliasing cancellation (TDAC), 218–19
see also Discrete cosine transform (DCT); Fourier tranforms; Wavelet transforms
Transients:
AC-3, 218
audio compression, 197
floating-point coding, 195, 195
human auditory system, 180
MPEG Layer I, 204
MPEG Layer II, 207
MPEG Layer III, 209, 209, 210–11, 211
MPEG-2 AAC, 214, 215, 216, 218
sub-band coding, 198
transform coding, 29
Transmission:
digital television broadcasting, 368–81
MPEG bitstreams, 353–5
Transmission errors, 16–18, 33
Transparent macroblocks, 289, 291
ATSC, 383–9
digital video broadcasting (DVB), 369–70, 371
multiplexing, 362–4
Program Clock Reference, 359–60
Program Specific Information, 361–2, 361
Transversal filters, 102, 115, 115
Triangle coding, 317–24, 318, 320
Two-dimensional mesh coding, 303–8
Two’s complement system, 77–81, 78–82
floating-point coding, 85, 85, 86
Uniform quantizing, 60–1
Unmasking, 222–5
Unstructured data transfer (UDT), 411
Variable-length coding (VLC), 266–70, 267–8
three-dimensional mesh coding, 319
weaknesses, 366
Variable-ratio conversion, 108, 108, 116
VBV see Video buffer verifier
VCEG see Video Coding Experts Group (VCEG)
VCL see Video Coding Layer
VCO see Voltage-controlled oscillator
VCXO see Voltage controlled crystal oscillator
AVC, 292, 292, 294–7, 295, 335–7, 336, 337
face and body animation, 325
interlace, 279
mesh coding, 305–8, 306, 307, 324
motion estimation, 150–7
MPEG-2 coder, 281
MPEG-4, 254–5
quantization, 221
slices, 254
sprites, 308
texture coding, 292, 292, 294–7, 295
video object coding, 302–3, 302
Vertex loop look-up table, 320, 321, 324
Vertices, 317–24, 317, 318, 320, 325
Video, 230–52
audio sampling rate, 53–4
bandwidth, 38
camera-shake compensation, 159–61
compression principles, 14–21
distortion produced by quantizing error, 65
film-orignated material, 19–21
gamma, 8
interlaced scan, 245–50
interpolation, 107
motion compensation, 147–50
motion estimation, 150–7
MPEG applications, 5–7
MPEG-1, 21
multiplication, 85
noise reduction, 121–2
picture transport, 349
progressive scan, 245, 245, 249
sampling, 56–8
SNR, 38
types, 36–8
use of audio compression, 192
see also Digital video broadcasting; Multiplexing
Video buffer verifier (VBV), 282
Video Coding Experts Group (VCEG) (ITU), 5
Video Coding Layer (VCL), 330
Video object coding, 301–3, 301, 306–8, 307
Video object planes (VOPs), 230
MPEG-4, 287, 288–9, 289–91, 295–7
padding, 299–300
scaleability, 326–8
shape coding, 297–9
video object coding, 301–3, 301, 302
Video objects:
mesh coding, 303–8
Video phones, 367–8
Video-CD, 4
Virtual objects, 315–24
Visemes, 325
Vision, eye, 230–4
Visual accommodation, 230–1
Visual Objects, MPEG-4, 26, 26, 27, 287–8, 287
Visual Profiles, MPEG-4, 26, 26, 27
Voltage controlled crystal oscillator (VCXO), 359–60, 360
Voltage-controlled oscillator (VCO), 58–60, 59, 60
Volume Unit (VU) meter, 176
VOPs see Video object planes
VU meter see Volume Unit (VU) meter
Warping, 123–9
interpolation, 107
MPEG-4, 287
Wave filters, 120
Wavelet transforms, 16, 140–7, 143–7, 149, 310–15
convolution, 97
intra-coding, 260
transform coding, 28–9
Weave, 159–60
Weighting:
AVC, 335
intra-coding, 264–5, 264, 269, 269
Weighting curves, 183
Window functions:
Fourier transforms, 136–7, 140, 142, 147
MPEG-2 AAC, 212–14
wavelet transforms, 140–1
Zero-order hold (ZOH) system, 50–1, 51, 52
Zero-run-length, 266–7, 267–8, 284
Zerotree coding, 311–15, 313, 314
MPEG-2 decoder, 284
ZOH see Zero-order hold