Notes
Introduction
1. Emily Pronin, Daniel Y. Lin, and Lee Ross. “The bias blind spot: Perceptions of bias in self versus others.” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 28, no.3 (2002): 369–381.
2. Paul Carroll and Chunka Mui. Billion Dollar Lessons: What You Can Learn from the Most Inexcusable Business Failures of the Last Twenty-five Years. New York: Penguin, 2008.
3. “Do economic or industry factors affect business survival?” SBA Office of Advocacy. June 2012. www.sba.gov
Chapter 1
1. “Equifax data breach was ‘entirely preventable,’ congressional report finds.” CBS News, Dec. 11, 2018, www.cbsnews.com
2. Sarah Whitten, Betsy Spring, and Kate Rogers. “Papa John's founder John Schnatter finally has his day in court, testifies against the board.” CNBC. Oct. 1, 2018, www.cnbc.com
3. Michael Liedtke. “Musk out as Tesla chair, remains CEO in $40M SEC settlement.” AP News, Sept. 30, 2018, https://apnews.com
4. Mark Murphy. “Leadership IQ study: Mismanagement, inaction among the real reasons why CEOs get fired.” Oct. 26, 2018, www.prweb.com
5. Richard S. Tedlow. Denial: Why Business Leaders Fail to Look Facts in the Face—and What to Do About It. New York: Penguin, 2010.
6. Sigmund Freud. The Ego and the Id. No. 142. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 1923.
7. Daniel Kahneman. Thinking, Fast and Slow. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2011.
8. Marco Del Giudice. Evolutionary Psychopathology: A Unified Approach. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2018.
9. Joy F. Baumeister and John Tierney. Willpower: Rediscovering the Greatest Human Strength. New York: Penguin, 2012; Veronika Job, Carol S. Dweck, and Gregory M. Walton. “Ego depletion—Is it all in your head? Implicit theories about willpower affect self-regulation.” Psychological Science 21, no. 11 (2010): 1686–1693.
10. Gerd Gigerenzer. Gut Feelings: The Intelligence of the Unconscious. New York: Penguin, 2007; Gerd Gigerenzer and Reinhard Selten, eds. Bounded Rationality: The Adaptive Toolbox. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2002.
11. Charles F. Bond Jr. and Bella M. DePaulo. “Accuracy of deception judgments.” Personality and Social Psychology Review 10, no. 3 (2006): 214–234.
12. Dan Ariely. Predictably Irrational. New York: HarperCollins, 2008; Mahzarin R. Banaji and Anthony G. Greenwald. Blindspot: Hidden Biases of Good People. New York: Delacorte Press, 2013.
13. Balazs Aczel, Bence Bago, Aba Szollosi, Andrei Foldes, and Bence Lukacs. “Is it time for studying real-life debiasing? Evaluation of the effectiveness of an analogical intervention technique.” Frontiers in Psychology 6 (2015): 1–13; Sammy Almashat, Brian Ayotte, Barry Edelstein, and Jennifer Margrett. “Framing effect debiasing in medical decision making.” Patient Education and Counseling 71, no. 1 (2008): 102–107; Craig A. Anderson. “Inoculation and counterexplanation: Debiasing techniques in the perseverance of social theories.” Social Cognition 1, no. 2 (1982): 126–139; Hal R. Arkes. “Costs and benefits of judgment errors: Implications for debiasing.” Psychological Bulletin 110, no. 3 (1991): 486–498; Jonathan Baron. Thinking and Deciding. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2000; Jonathan Baron, Jane Beattie, and John C. Hershey. “Heuristics and biases in diagnostic reasoning: II. Congruence, information, and certainty.” Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 42, no. 1 (1988): 88–110; Guillaume Beaulac and Tim Kenyon. “Critical thinking education and debiasing (AILACT Essay Prize Winner 2013).” Informal Logic 34, no. 4 (2014): 341–363; Izak Benbasat and John Lim. “Information technology support for debiasing group judgments: An empirical evaluation.” Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 83, no. 1 (2000): 167–183; Bret G. Bentz, Donald A. Williamson, and Susan F. Franks. “Debiasing of pessimistic judgments associated with anxiety.” Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment 26, no. 3 (2004): 173–180; Gokul Bhandari, Khaled Hassanein, and Richard Deaves. “Debiasing investors with decision support systems: An experimental investigation.” Decision Support Systems 46, no. 1 (2008): 399–410; Kemal B. Büyükkurt and Meral Demirbag Büyükkurt. “An experimental study of the effectiveness of three debiasing techniques.” Decision Sciences 22, no. 1 (1991): 60–73; Fei-Fei Cheng and Chin-Shan Wu. “Debiasing the framing effect: The effect of warning and involvement.” Decision Support Systems 49, no. 3 (2010): 328–334; Peter M. Clarkson, Craig Emby, and Vanessa W-S. Watt. “Debiasing the outcome effect: The role of instructions in an audit litigation setting.” Auditing: A Journal of Practice & Theory 21, no. 2 (2002): 7–20; Robert T. Clemen and Kenneth C. Lichtendahl. “Debiasing expert overconfidence: A Bayesian calibration model.” In Sixth International Conference on Probablistic Safety Assessment and Management (2002): 1–16; Pat Croskerry. “Cognitive forcing strategies in clinical decision-making.” Annals of Emergency Medicine 41, no. 1 (2003): 110–120; Pat Croskerry. “When I say...cognitive debiasing.” Medical Education 49, no. 7 (2015): 656–657; Pat Croskerry, Geeta Singhal, and Sílvia Mamede. “Cognitive debiasing 1: Origins of bias and theory of debiasing.” BMJ Qual Saf (2013): 1–7; Daniel Dennett. “Intentional systems theory.” The Oxford Handbook of Philosophy of Mind (2009): 339–350; Rolf Dobelli. The Art of Thinking Clearly: Better Thinking, Better Decisions. London: Hachette UK, 2013; J. St BT Evans, S. E. Newstead, J. L. Allen, and P. Pollard. “Debiasing by instruction: The case of belief bias.” European Journal of Cognitive Psychology 6, no. 3 (1994): 263–285; Bent Flyvbjerg. “Curbing optimism bias and strategic misrepresentation in planning: Reference class forecasting in practice.” European Planning Studies 16, no. 1 (2008): 3–21; Cary Frydman and Antonio Rangel. “Debiasing the disposition effect by reducing the saliency of information about a stock's purchase price.” Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization 107 (2014): 541–552; Adam Daniel Galinsky. “Perspective-taking: Debiasing social thought (stereotyping).” ProQuest Information & Learning (1999): 708–724; Atul Gawande. The Checklist Manifesto: How to Get Things Right. New York: Henry Holt and Company, 2009; Paul Goodwin and Richard Lawton. “Debiasing forecasts: How useful is the unbiasedness test?” International Journal of Forecasting 19, no. 3 (2003): 467–475; Lorenz Graf, Andreas König, Albrecht Enders, and Harald Hungenberg. “Debiasing competitive irrationality: How managers can be prevented from trading off absolute for relative profit.” European Management Journal 30, no. 4 (2012): 386–403; Andrew C. Hafenbrack, Zoe Kinias, and Sigal G. Barsade. “Debiasing the mind through meditation: Mindfulness and the sunk-cost bias.” Psychological Science 25, no. 2 (2014): 369–376; Jonathan Haidt. The Happiness Hypothesis: Putting Ancient Wisdom and Philosophy to the Test of Modern Science. London: Arrow, 2007; Chip Heath and Dan Heath. Decisive: How to Make Better Choices in Life and at Work. New York: Random House, 2013; Chip Heath and Dan Heath. Switch: How to Change When Change Is Hard. New York: Crown Business, 2010; Edward R. Hirt, Frank R. Kardes, and Keith D. Markman. “Activating a mental simulation mind-set through generation of alternatives: Implications for debiasing in related and unrelated domains.” Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 40, no. 3 (2004): 374–383; Edward R. Hirt and Keith D. Markman. “Multiple explanation: A consider-an-alternative strategy for debiasing judgments.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 69, no. 6 (1995): 1069–1086; Barbara E. Kahn, Mary Frances Luce, and Stephen M. Nowlis. “Debiasing insights from process tests.” Journal of Consumer Research 33, no. 1 (2006): 131– 138; Frank R. Kardes, Steven S. Posavac, David Silvera, Maria L. Cronley, David M. Sanbonmatsu, Susan Schertzer, Felicia Miller, Paul M. Herr, and Murali Chandrashekaran. “Debiasing omission neglect.” Journal of Business Research 59, no. 6 (2006): 786–792; Markku Kaustia and Milla Perttula. “Overconfidence and debiasing in the financial industry.” Review of Behavioural Finance 4, no. 1 (2012): 46–62; Gideon Keren. “Cognitive aids and debiasing methods: can cognitive pills cure cognitive ills?.” In Advances in Psychology, vol. 68 (1990): 523–552; Tim Kenyon. “False polarization: debiasing as applied social epistemology.” Synthese 191, no. 11 (2014): 2529–2547; Laura J. Kray and Adam D. Galinsky. “The debiasing effect of counterfactual mindsets: Increasing the search for disconfirmatory information in group decisions.” Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 91, no. 1 (2003): 69–81; Justin Kruger and Matt Evans. “If you don't want to be late, enumerate: Unpacking reduces the planning fallacy.” Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 40, no. 5 (2004): 586–598; Richard P. Larrick. “Debiasing.” Blackwell Handbook of Judgment and Decision Making (2004): 316–338; Stephan Lewandowsky, Ullrich KH Ecker, Colleen M. Seifert, Norbert Schwarz, and John Cook. “Misinformation and its correction: Continued influence and successful debiasing.” Psychological Science in the Public Interest 13, no. 3 (2012): 106–131; Scott O. Lilienfeld, Rachel Ammirati, and Kristin Landfield. “Giving debiasing away: Can psychological research on correcting cognitive errors promote human welfare?” Perspectives on Psychological Science 4, no. 4 (2009): 390–398; Lai-Huat Lim and Izak Benbasat. “The debiasing role of group support systems: An experimental investigation of the representativeness bias.” International Journal of Human-Computer Studies 47, no. 3 (1997): 453–471; Lola L. Lopes. “Procedural debiasing.” Acta Psychologica 64, no. 2 (1987): 167–185; Donald L. McCabe and Linda Klebe Trevino. “Academic dishonesty: Honor codes and other contextual influences.” The Journal of Higher Education 64, no. 5 (1993): 522–538; Donald L. McCabe, Linda Klebe Trevino, and Kenneth D. Butterfield. “Academic integrity in honor code and non-honor code environments: A qualitative investigation.” The Journal of Higher Education 70, no. 2 (1999): 211–234; David McRaney. You Are Not So Smart: Why You Have Too Many Friends on Facebook, Why Your Memory Is Mostly Fiction, and 46 Other Ways You're Deluding Yourself. Gotham Books/Penguin Group, 2011; Alfred R. Mele. Irrationality: An Essay on Akrasia, Self-Deception, and Self-Control. Oxford: Oxford University Press on Demand, 1992; Audrey K. Miller, Keith D. Markman, Maverick M. Wagner, and Amy N. Hunt. “Mental simulation and sexual prejudice reduction: The debiasing role of counterfactual thinking.” Journal of Applied Social Psychology 43, no. 1 (2013): 190–194; Carey K. Morewedge, Haewon Yoon, Irene Scopelliti, Carl W. Symborski, James H. Korris, and Karim S. Kassam. “Debiasing decisions: Improved decision making with a single training intervention.” Policy Insights from the Behavioral and Brain Sciences 2, no. 1 (2015): 129–140; Bhagwant N. Persaud and Ezra Hauer. “Comparison of two methods for debiasing before-and-after accident studies.” Transportation Research Record 975 (1984): 1 Persaud, 7; Michael A. Roberto. Know What You Don't Know: How Great Leaders Prevent Problems Before They Happen. New Jersey: Pearson Prentice Hall, 2009; Jason R. Rose. “Debiasing comparative optimism and increasing worry for health outcomes.” Journal of Health Psychology 17, no. 8 (2012): 1121–1131; Lee Ross and Richard E. Nisbett. The Person and the Situation: Perspectives of Social Psychology. Brixton, UK: Pinter & Martin Publishers, 2011; Lawrence J. Sanna, Norbert Schwarz, and Shevaun L. Stocker. “When debiasing backfires: Accessible content and accessibility experiences in debiasing hindsight.” Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 28, no. 3 (2002): 497–502; Thomas C. Schelling. The Strategy of Conflict. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1960; Alison C. Smith and Edith Greene. “Conduct and its consequences: Attempts at debiasing jury judgments.” Law and Human Behavior 29, no. 5 (2005): 505–526; Keither Stanovich. Rationality and the Reflective Mind. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2011; Cass R. Sunstein and Christine Jolls. “Debiasing Through Law” (John M. Olin Program in Law and Economics Working Paper No. 225 (2004): 1–53; Philip E. Tetlock. “Accountability: A social check on the fundamental attribution error.” Social Psychology Quarterly (1985): 227–236; Philip E. Tetlock. Expert Political Judgment: How Good Is It? How Can We Know? Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2017; Philip E. Tetlock and Dan Gardner. Superforecasting: The Art and Science of Prediction. New York: Random House, 2016; Philip E. Tetlock, Gregory Mitchell, and Terry L. Murray. “The challenge of debiasing personnel decisions: Avoiding both under- and overcorrection.” Industrial and Organizational Psychology 1, no. 4 (2008): 439–443; Richard H. Thaler. Nudge: Improving Decisions About Health, Wealth, and Happiness. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2008; Gleb Tsipursky. The Truth-Seeker's Handbook: A Science-Based Guide. Columbus, OH: Intentional Insights, 2017; Gleb Tsipursky and Fabio Votta. “Fighting fake news and post-truth politics with behavioral science: The pro-truth pledge.” Behavior and Social Issues 27, no. 2 (2018): 47–70; Gleb Tsipursky, Fabio Votta, and James Mulick. “Fighting fake news with psychology. The pro-truth pledge.” Journal of Social and Political Psychology 6, no. 2 (2018): 271–290; Gleb Tsipursky and Zachary Morford. “Addressing behaviors that lead to sharing fake news.” Behavior and Social Issues 27 (2018): 6–10; Michael Vaughan. The Thinking Effect: Rethinking Thinking to Create Great Leaders and the New Value Worker. London: Hachette UK, 2013; Neil D. Weinstein and William M. Klein. “Resistance of personal risk perceptions to debiasing interventions.” Health Psychology 14, no. 2 (1995): 132–140.
Chapter 2
1. Mohammed Abdellaoui, Han Bleichrodt, and Corina Paraschiv. “Loss aversion under prospect theory: A parameter-free measurement.” Management Science 53, no. 10 (2007): 1659–1674; Shlomo Benartzi and Richard H. Thaler. “Myopic loss aversion and the equity premium puzzle.” The Quarterly Journal of Economics 110, no. 1 (1995): 73–92; David Bowman, Deborah Minehart, and Matthew Rabin. “Loss aversion in a consumption–savings model.” Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization 38, no. 2 (1999): 155–178; Colin Camerer. “Three cheers—psychological, theoretical, empirical—for loss aversion.” Journal of Marketing Research 42, no. 2 (2005): 129– 133; James J. Chrisman and Pankaj C. Patel. “Variations in R&D investments of family and nonfamily firms: Behavioral agency and myopic loss aversion perspectives.” Academy of Management Journal 55, no. 4 (2012): 976–997; David Genesove and Christopher Mayer. “Loss aversion and seller behavior: Evidence from the housing market.” The Quarterly Journal of Economics 116, no. 4 (2001): 1233–1260; Michael S. Haigh and John A. List. “Do professional traders exhibit myopic loss aversion? An experimental analysis.” The Journal of Finance 60, no. 1 (2005): 523–534; Deborah A. Kermer, Erin Driver-Linn, Timothy D. Wilson, and Daniel T. Gilbert. “Loss aversion is an affective forecasting error.” Psychological Science 17, no. 8 (2006): 649–653; Veronika Köbberling and Peter Wakker. “An index of loss aversion.” Journal of Economic Theory (2005): 119–131; Nathan Novemsky and Daniel Kahneman. “The boundaries of loss aversion.” Journal of Marketing research 42, no. 2 (2005): 119–128; Richard H. Thaler, Amos Tversky, Daniel Kahneman, and Alan Schwartz. “The effect of myopia and loss aversion on risk taking: An experimental test.” The Quarterly Journal of Economics 112, no. 2 (1997): 647–661; Sabrina M. Tom, Craig R. Fox, Christopher Trepel, and Russell A. Poldrack. “The neural basis of loss aversion in decision-making under risk.” Science 315, no. 5811 (2007): 515–518; Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman. “Loss aversion in riskless choice: A reference-dependent model.” The Quarterly Journal of Economics 106, no. 4 (1991): 1039–1061.
2. Katrin Burmeister and Christian Schade. “Are entrepreneurs' decisions more biased? An experimental investigation of the susceptibility to status quo bias.” Journal of Business Venturing 22, no. 3 (2007): 340–362; Raquel Fernandez and Dani Rodrik. “Resistance to reform: Status quo bias in the presence of individual-specific uncertainty.” The American Economic Review (1991): 1146–1155; Yusufcan Masatlioglu and Efe A. Ok. “Rational choice with status quo bias.” Journal of Economic Theory 121, no. 1 (2005): 1–29; William Samuelson and Richard Zeckhauser. “Status quo bias in decision making.” Journal of Risk and Uncertainty 1, no. 1 (1988): 7–59.
3. Michael Thompson and Aaron Wildavsky. “A cultural theory of information bias in organizations.” Journal of Management Studies 23, no. 3 (1986): 273–286; Lyn M. Van Swol. “Perceived importance of information: The effects of mentioning information, shared information bias, ownership bias, reiteration, and confirmation bias.” Group Processes & Intergroup Relations 10, no. 2 (2007): 239–256.
4. Howard Garland and Stephanie Newport. “Effects of absolute and relative sunk costs on the decision to persist with a course of action.” Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 48, no. 1 (1991): 55–69; Gregory B. Northcraft and Gerrit Wolf. “Dollars, sense, and sunk costs: A life cycle model of resource allocation decisions.” Academy of Management Review 9, no. 2 (1984): 225–234; Jonathan O'Brien and Timothy Folta. “Sunk costs, uncertainty and market exit: A real options perspective.” Industrial and Corporate Change 18, no. 5 (2009): 807–833; Filip Roodhooft and Luk Warlop. “On the role of sunk costs and asset specificity in outsourcing decisions: A research note.” Accounting, Organizations and Society 24, no. 4 (1999): 363–369.
5. Robert Franciosi, Praveen Kujal, Roland Michelitsch, Vernon Smith, and Gang Deng. “Experimental tests of the endowment effect.” Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization 30, no. 2 (1996): 213–226; Jochen Reb and Terry Connolly. “Possession, feelings of ownership, and the endowment effect.” Judgment and Decision Making 2, no. 2 (2007): 107–114; Daniel Kahneman, Jack L. Knetsch, and Richard H. Thaler. “Anomalies: The endowment effect, loss aversion, and status quo bias.” Journal of Economic Perspectives 5, no. 1 (1991): 193–206; Eric Van Dijk and Daan Van Knippenberg. “Buying and selling exchange goods: Loss aversion and the endowment effect.” Journal of Economic Psychology 17, no. 4 (1996): 517–524.
6. Michael I. Norton, Daniel Mochon, and Dan Ariely. “The IKEA effect: When labor leads to love.” Journal of Consumer Psychology 22, no. 3 (2012): 453–460; Marko Sarstedt, Doreen Neubert, and Kati Barth. “The IKEA effect. A conceptual replication.” Journal of Marketing Behavior 2, no. 4 (2017): 307–312.
7. Jon Kabat-Zinn and Thich Nhat Hanh. Full Catastrophe Living: Using the Wisdom of Your Body and Mind to Face Stress, Pain, and Illness. New York: Bantam, 2009; Richard Shankman. The Art and Skill of Buddhist Meditation: Mindfulness, Concentration, and Insight. Oakland, CA: New Harbinger Publications, 2015.
Chapter 3
1. Jerry M. Burger. “Motivational biases in the attribution of responsibility for an accident: A meta-analysis of the defensive-attribution hypothesis.” Psychological Bulletin 90, no. 3 (1981): 496–512; Incheol Choi and Richard E. Nisbett. “Situational salience and cultural differences in the correspondence bias and actor-observer bias.” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 24, no. 9 (1998): 949–960; Bertram Gawronski. “Theory-based bias correction in dispositional inference: The fundamental attribution error is dead, long live the correspondence bias.” European Review of Social Psychology 15, no. 1 (2004): 183–217; Daniel T. Gilbert and Patrick S. Malone. “The correspondence bias.” Psychological Bulletin 117, no. 1 (1995): 21–38; Edward E. Jones and Victor A. Harris. “The attribution of attitudes.” Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 3, no. 1 (1967): 1–24; Bertram F. Malle. “The actor-observer asymmetry in attribution: A (surprising) meta-analysis.” Psychological Bulletin 132, no. 6 (2006): 895–919; Douglas S. Krull, Michelle Hui-Min Loy, Jennifer Lin, Ching-Fu Wang, Suhong Chen, and Xudong Zhao. “The fundamental fundamental attribution error: Correspondence bias in individualist and collectivist cultures.” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 25, no. 10 (1999): 1208–1219; Lee Ross. “The intuitive psychologist and his shortcomings: Distortions in the attribution process.” Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, vol. 10 (1977): 173–220.
2. Scott T. Allison and David M. Messick. “The group attribution error.” Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 21, no. 6 (1985): 563–579; Olivier Corneille, Vincent Y. Yzerbyt, Anouk Rogier, and Geneviève Buidin. “Threat and the group attribution error: When threat elicits judgments of extremity and homogeneity.” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 27, no. 4 (2001): 437–446; Ruth Hamill, Timothy D. Wilson, and Richard E. Nisbett. “Insensitivity to sample bias: Generalizing from atypical cases.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 39, no. 4 (1980): 578–589; Diane M. Mackie and Scott T. Allison. “Group attribution errors and the illusion of group attitude change.” Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 23, no. 6 (1987): 460–480.
3. Miles Hewstone. “The ‘ultimate attribution error’? A review of the literature on intergroup causal attribution.” European Journal of Social Psychology 20, no. 4 (1990): 311–335; Thomas F. Pettigrew. “The ultimate attribution error: Extending Allport's cognitive analysis of prejudice.” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 5, no. 4 (1979): 461–476.
4. Frank Dobbin and Alexandra Kalev. “Why diversity programs fail And what works better.” Harvard Business Review 94, no. 7–8 (2016): 52– 60; Shari Caudron. “Training can damage diversity efforts.” Personnel Journal 72, no. 4 (1993): 50–62; Benjamin Bowling. “Pulled over: How police stops define race and citizenship.” Policing and Society (2018): 1–4; Patricia G. Devine, Patrick S. Forscher, Anthony J. Austin, and William T. L. Cox. “Long-term reduction in implicit race bias: A prejudice habit-breaking intervention.” Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 48, no. 6 (2012): 1267–1278; John F. Dovidio, Kerry Kawakami, and Samuel L. Gaertner. “Reducing contemporary prejudice: Combating explicit and implicit bias at the individual and intergroup level.” Reducing Prejudice and Discrimination (2000): 137– 163; Anthony Greenwald and Linda Hamilton Krieger. “Implicit bias: Scientific foundations.” California Law Review 94, no. 4 (2006): 945–967; Irene Frieze, Irene Hanson, Josephine E. Olson, and Deborah Cain Good. “Perceived and actual discrimination in the salaries of male and female managers.” Journal of Applied Social Psychology 20, no. 1 (1990): 46–67; Hellen Hemphill and Ray Haines. Discrimination, Harassment, and the Failure of Diversity Training: What to Do Now. Westport, CT: Greenwood Publishing Group, 1997; Jasmin Joecks, Kerstin Pull, and Karin Vetter. “Gender diversity in the boardroom and firm performance: What exactly constitutes a ‘critical mass?’” Journal of Business Ethics 118, no. 1 (2013): 61–72; John T. Jost, Laurie A. Rudman, Irene V. Blair, Dana R. Carney, Nilanjana Dasgupta, Jack Glaser, and Curtis D. Hardin. “The existence of implicit bias is beyond reasonable doubt: A refutation of ideological and methodological objections and executive summary of ten studies that no manager should ignore.” Research in Organizational Behavior 29 (2009): 39–69; Karen S. Lyness and Donna E. Thompson. “Climbing the corporate ladder: Do female and male executives follow the same route?” Journal of Applied Psychology 85, no. 1 (2000): 86–101; Ann M. Morrison and Mary Ann Von Glinow. “Women and minorities in management.” American Psychological Association 45, no. 2: 1990; Marcus Noland, Tyler Moran, and Barbara Kotschwar. “Is gender diversity profitable? Evidence from a global survey.” Peterson Institute for International Economics Working Paper No. 16–3 (2016): 1–35; Howard J. Ross, Reinventing Diversity: Transforming Organizational Community to Strengthen People, Purpose, and Performance. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2011; Howard J. Ross and Jon Robert Tartaglione. Our Search for Belonging: How Our Need to Connect Is Tearing Us Apart. Oakland, CA: Berrett-Koehler Publishers, 2018; Linda K. Stroh, Jeanne M. Brett, and Anne H. Reilly. “All the right stuff: A comparison of female and male managers' career progression.” Journal of Applied Psychology 77, no. 3 (1992): 251–260; David A. Thomas. “The impact of race on managers' experiences of developmental relationships (mentoring and sponsorship): An intra-organizational study.” Journal of Organizational Behavior 11, no. 6 (1990): 479–492.
5. J. D. Trout. The Empathy Gap: Building Bridges to the Good Life and the Good Society. New York: Penguin, 2009; Karl-Andrew Woltin, Vincent Y. Yzerbyt, and Olivier Corneille. “On reducing an empathy gap: The impact of self-construal and order of judgment.” British Journal of Social Psychology 50, no. 3 (2011): 553–562; Loran F. Nordgren, Kasia Banas, and Geoff MacDonald. “Empathy gaps for social pain: Why people underestimate the pain of social suffering.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 100, no. 1 (2011): 120–128.
6. Robyn M. Dawes. “False consensus effect.” Insights in Decision Making: A Tribute to Hillel J. Einhorn (1990): 179–199; Gary Marks and Norman Miller. “Ten years of research on the false-consensus effect: An empirical and theoretical review.” Psychological Bulletin 102, no. 1 (1987): 72–90; Lee Ross, David Greene, and Pamela House. “The ‘false consensus effect’: An egocentric bias in social perception and attribution processes.” Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 13, no. 3 (1977): 279-301.
7. Herman Aguinis, Harry Joo, and Ryan K. Gottfredson. “What monetary rewards can and cannot do: How to show employees the money.” Business Horizons 56, no. 2 (2013): 241–249; Martin Dewhurst, Matthew Guthridge, and Elizabeth Mohr. “Motivating people: Getting beyond money.” McKinsey Quarterly 1, no. 4 (2009): 12–15; John Gibbons. Employee Engagement. New York: Pitman, 2006; Fraya Wagner-Marsh and James Conley. “The fourth wave: The spiritually-based firm.” Journal of Organizational Change Management 12, no. 4 (1999): 292– 302; Brent D. Rosso, Kathryn H. Dekas, and Amy Wrzesniewski. “On the meaning of work: A theoretical integration and review.” Research in Organizational Behavior 30 (2010): 91–127; Michael F. Steger, Bryan J. Dik, and Ryan D. Duffy. “Measuring meaningful work: The work and meaning inventory (WAMI).” Journal of Career Assessment 20, no. 3 (2012): 322–337; Gleb Tsipursky. “Meaning and purpose in a non-Western modernity.” International Journal of Existential Psychology and Psychotherapy 6, no. 1 (2016): 1–13; Gleb Tsipursky. Find Your Purpose Using Science. Columbus, OH: Intentional Insights, 2015.
8. Cedric Herring. “Does diversity pay? Race, gender, and the business case for diversity.” American Sociological Review 74, no. 2 (2009): 208–224.
9. Sander Hoogendoorn, Hessel Oosterbeek, and Mirjam Van Praag. “The impact of gender diversity on the performance of business teams: Evidence from a field experiment.” Management Science 59, no. 7 (2013): 1514–1528.
Chapter 4
1. Tracy Rucinski. “HCR ManorCare files for bankruptcy with $7.1 billion in debt.” Reuters, Mar. 5, 2018, www.reuters.com
2. Mark Murphy. “Leadership IQ study: Mismanagement, inaction among the real reasons why CEOs get fired.” Oct. 26, 2018, www.prweb.com
3. H. G. Parsa, John T. Self, David Njite, and Tiffany King. “Why restaurants fail.” Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration Quarterly 46, no. 3 (2005): 304–322.
4. Richard S. Tedlow. Denial: Why Business Leaders Fail to Look Facts in the Face and What to Do About It. New York: Penguin, 2010.
5. Clayton M. Christensen, Richard Alton, Curtis Rising, and Andrew Waldeck. “The big idea: The new M&A playbook.” Harvard Business Review 89, no. 3 (2011): 48–57.
6. James Friedrich. “Primary error detection and minimization (PEDMIN) strategies in social cognition: A reinterpretation of confirmation bias phenomena.” Psychological Review 100, no. 2 (1993): 298–319; Ivan Hernandez and Jesse Lee Preston. “Disfluency disrupts the confirmation bias.” Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 49, no. 1 (2013): 178–182; Martin Jones and Robert Sugden. “Positive confirmation bias in the acquisition of information.” Theory and Decision 50, no. 1 (2001): 59–99; Joshua Klayman. “Varieties of confirmation bias.” Psychology of Learning and Motivation 32 (1995): 385–418; Jeffrey J. McMillan and Richard A. White. “Auditors' belief revisions and evidence search: The effect of hypothesis frame, confirmation bias, and professional skepticism.” Accounting Review (1993): 443–465; Rosemarie Mendel, Eva Traut-Mattausch, Eva Jonas, Stefan Leucht, John M. Kane, Katja Maino, Werner Kissling, and Johannes Hamann. “Confirmation bias: Why psychiatrists stick to wrong preliminary diagnoses.” Psychological Medicine 41, no. 12 (2011): 2651–2659; Geoffrey D. Munro and Jessica A. Stansbury. “The dark side of self-affirmation: Confirmation bias and illusory correlation in response to threatening information.” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 35, no. 9 (2009): 1143–1153; Gleb Tsipursky. “How can facts trump ideology?” The Human Prospect 6, no. 3 (2017): 4–10.
7. Soma Biswas. “HCR ManorCare Files for Bankruptcy.” Wall Street Journal, Mar. 5, 2018, www.wsj.com
8. Jack Ewing. “Ex-Volkswagen C.E.O. charged with fraud over diesel emissions.” New York Times, May 3, 2018, www.nytimes.com
9. J. St. B.T. Evans, S. E. Newstead, J. L. Allen, and P. Pollard. “Debiasing by instruction: The case of belief bias.” European Journal of Cognitive Psychology 6, no. 3 (1994): 263–285; Donna Torrens. “Individual differences and the belief bias effect: Mental models, logical necessity, and abstract reasoning.” Thinking & Reasoning 5, no. 1 (1999): 1–28; Walter C. Sá, Richard F. West, and Keith E. Stanovich. “The domain specificity and generality of belief bias: Searching for a generalizable critical thinking skill.” Journal of Educational Psychology 91, no. 3 (1999): 497–510.
10. Dan Galai and Orly Sade. “The ‘ostrich effect’ and the relationship between the liquidity and the yields of financial assets.” The Journal of Business 79, no. 5 (2006): 2741–2759; Niklas Karlsson, George Loewenstein, and Duane Seppi. “The ostrich effect: Selective attention to information.” Journal of Risk and Uncertainty 38, no. 2 (2009): 95– 115.
11. Haim Omer and Nahman Alon. “The continuity principle: A unified approach to disaster and trauma.” American Journal of Community Psychology 22, no. 2 (1994): 273–287; Pamela V. Valentine and Thomas Edward Smith. “Finding something to do: The disaster continuity care model.” Brief Treatment and Crisis Intervention 2, no. 2 (2002): 183– 196.
12. John Eisenhammer, Colin Brown, and John Willcock, “Bank of England offloads blame for Barings collapse.” The Independent, July 19, 1995, www.independent.co.uk
13. Ryan S. Bisel, Amber S. Messersmith, and Katherine M. Kelley. “Supervisor-subordinate communication: Hierarchical mum effect meets organizational learning.” The Journal of Business Communication (1973) 49, no. 2 (2012): 128–147; Wing S. Chow and Lai Sheung Chan. “Social network, social trust and shared goals in organizational knowledge sharing.” Information & Management 45, no. 7 (2008): 458–465; Jayson L. Dibble and Timothy R. Levine. “Breaking good and bad news: Direction of the MUM effect and senders' cognitive representations of news valence.” Communication Research 37, no. 5 (2010): 703–722; Sidney Rosen and Abraham Tesser. “On reluctance to communicate undesirable information: The MUM effect.” Sociometry (1970): 253–263; Eliezer Yariv. “‘MUM effect’”: Principals' reluctance to submit negative feedback.” Journal of Managerial Psychology 21, no. 6 (2006): 533–546.
14. Constantine W. Sedikides, Keith Campbell, Glenn D. Reeder, and Andrew J. Elliot. “The self-serving bias in relational context.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 74, no. 2 (1998): 378–386.
15. Lisa K. Fazio, Nadia M. Brashier, B. Keith Payne, and Elizabeth J. Marsh. “Knowledge does not protect against illusory truth.” Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 144, no. 5 (2015): 993–1002.
16. Xiang Fang, Surendra Singh, and Rohini Ahluwalia. “An examination of different explanations for the mere-exposure effect.” Journal of Consumer Research 34, no. 11 (2007): 97–103.
17. Scot Burton, Laurel Aynne Cook, Elizabeth Howlett, and Christopher L. Newman. “Broken halos and shattered horns: Overcoming the biasing effects of prior expectations through objective information disclosure.” Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science 43, no. 2 (2015): 240–256; Michelle C. Bligh, Jeffrey C. Kohles, Craig L. Pearce, Joseph E. Justin, and John F. Stovall. “When the romance is over: Follower perspectives of aversive leadership.” Applied Psychology 56, no. 4 (2007): 528–557; Lance Leuthesser, Chiranjeev S. Kohli, and Katrin R. Harich. “Brand equity: The halo effect measure.” European Journal of Marketing 29, no. 4 (1995): 57–66; Richard E. Nisbett and Timothy D. Wilson. “The halo effect: Evidence for unconscious alteration of judgments.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 35, no. 4 (1977): 250–256; W. Timothy Coombs and Sherry J. Holladay. “Unpacking the halo effect: Reputation and crisis management.” Journal of Communication Management 10, no. 2 (2006): 123–137.
18. Praveen Aggarwal Stephen B. Castleberry, Rick Ridnour, and C. David Shepherd. “Salesperson empathy and listening: Impact on relationship outcomes.” Journal of Marketing Theory and Practice 13, no. 3 (2005): 16– 31; Peter Edelman and Daan van Knippenberg. “Emotional intelligence, management of subordinate's emotions, and leadership effectiveness.” Leadership & Organization Development Journal 39, no. 5 (2018): 592–607; Tomas R. Giberson, Christian J. Resick, Marcus W. Dickson, Jacqueline K. Mitchelson, Kenneth R. Randall, and Malissa A. Clark. “Leadership and organizational culture: Linking CEO characteristics to cultural values.” Journal of Business and Psychology 24, no. 2 (2009): 123–137; Bryce G. Hoffman. American Icon: Alan Mulally and the Fight to Save Ford Motor Company. New York: Three Rivers Press, 2012; Rob H. Kamery. “Motivation techniques for positive reinforcement: A review.” In Allied Academies International Conference. Academy of Legal, Ethical and Regulatory Issues. Proceedings, vol. 8, no. 2 (2004): 91–96; John D. Mayer and Glenn Geher. “Emotional intelligence and the identification of emotion.” Intelligence 22, no. 2 (1996): 89–113; Robin T. Peterson and Yam Limbu. “The convergence of mirroring and empathy: Communications training in business-to-business personal selling persuasion efforts.” Journal of Business-to-Business Marketing 16, no. 3 (2009): 193–219; Al Pittampalli. Persuadable: How Great Leaders Change Their Minds to Change the World. New York: Harper Business, 2016.
Chapter 5
1. Sydney Finkelstein. Why Smart Executives Fail: And What You Can Learn from Their Mistakes. New York: Penguin, 2004; Jayashree Mahajan. “The overconfidence effect in marketing management predictions.” JMR, Journal of Marketing Research 29, no. 3 (1992): 329–342; Ulrike Malmendier and Geoffrey Tate. “CEO overconfidence and corporate investment.” The Journal of Finance 60, no. 6 (2005): 2661–2700; Richard F. West and Keith E. Stanovich. “The domain specificity and generality of overconfidence: Individual differences in performance estimation bias.” Psychonomic Bulletin & Review 4, no. 3 (1997): 387– 392; Mark D. Alicke and Olesya Govorun. “The better-than-average effect.” The Self in Social Judgment 1 (2005): 85–106.
2. R. Bénabou. “Groupthink: Collective delusions in organizations and markets.” Review of Economic Studies, 80(2) (2012): 429–462.
3. Lisa Everson and Kim Bainbridge. “How Jeni's Splendid Ice Creams handled a listeria crisis.” NBC News, Feb. 26, 2018, www.nbcnews.com
4. Deloitte. “The state of the deal: M&A trends 2018.” (2018): 1–24. www2.deloitte.com
5. KPMG, “Unlocking shareholder value: The keys to success.” (1999): 1–21, http://people.stern.nyu.edu
6. Ola Svenson. “Are we all less risky and more skillful than our fellow drivers?” Acta Psychologica 47, no. 2 (1981): 143–148.
7. Ezra W. Zuckerman and John T. Jost. “What makes you think you're so popular? Self-evaluation maintenance and the subjective side of the ‘friendship paradox.’” Social Psychology Quarterly (2001): 207–223.
8. Myles Udland. “Fidelity reviewed which investors did best and what they found was hilarious.” Business Insider, Sept. 4, 2014, www. businessinsider.com
9. David Dunning. “The Dunning–Kruger effect: On being ignorant of one's own ignorance.” Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, vol. 44 (2011): 247–296; Justin Kruger and David Dunning. “Unskilled and unaware of it: How difficulties in recognizing one's own incompetence lead to inflated self-assessments.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 77, no. 6 (1999): 1121–1134; Oliver Sheldon, David Dunning, and Daniel R. Ames. “Emotionally unskilled, unaware, and uninterested in learning more: Reactions to feedback about deficits in emotional intelligence.” Journal of Applied Psychology 99, no. 1 (2014): 125–137.
10. Chunka Mui and Paul Carroll. Billion Dollar Lessons. New York: Portfolio, 2008.
11. Hal R. Arkes, David Faust, Thomas J. Guilmette, and Kathleen Hart. “Eliminating the hindsight bias.” Journal of Applied Psychology 73, no. 2 (1988): 305–307; Hal R. Arkes, Robert L. Wortmann, Paul D. Saville, and Allan R. Harkness. “Hindsight bias among physicians weighing the likelihood of diagnoses.” Journal of Applied Psychology 66, no. 2 (1981): 252–254.
12. JeonWook Son and Eddy M. Rojas. “Impact of optimism bias regarding organizational dynamics on project planning and control.” Journal of Construction Engineering and Management 137, no. 2 (2010): 147–157; Bent Flyvbjerg. “Curbing optimism bias and strategic misrepresentation in planning: Reference class forecasting in practice.” European Planning Studies 16, no. 1 (2008): 3–21.
13. Dariusz Dolinski, Wojciech Gromski, and Ewa Zawisza. “Unrealistic pessimism.” The Journal of Social Psychology 127, no. 5 (1987): 511– 516.
14. Roger Buehler, Dale Griffin, and Michael Ross. “Exploring the ‘planning fallacy’: Why people underestimate their task completion times.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 67, no. 3 (1994): 366–81; Markus K. Brunnermeier, Filippos Papakonstantinou, and Jonathan A. Parker. “An economic model of the planning fallacy.” No. 14228. National Bureau of Economic Research, 2008; Roger Buehler, Dale Griffin, and Johanna Peetz. “The planning fallacy: Cognitive, motivational, and social origins.” Advances in Experimental Social Psychology 43 (2010): 1–62; Justin Kruger, and Matt Evans. “If you don't want to be late, enumerate: Unpacking reduces the planning fallacy.” Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 40, no. 5 (2004): 586–598.
15. Thomas Gilovich, Kenneth Savitsky, and Victoria Husted Medvec. “The illusion of transparency: Biased assessments of others' ability to read one's emotional states.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 75, no. 2 (1998): 332–346; Leaf Van Boven, Thomas Gilovich, and Victoria Husted Medvec. “The illusion of transparency in negotiations.” Negotiation Journal 19, no. 2 (2003): 117–131.
16. James Surowiecki. The Wisdom of Crowds. Anchor, 2005; Jack Zenger and Joseph Folkman. “Ten fatal flaws that derail leaders.” Harvard Business Review 87, no. 6 (2009): 18–22.
Chapter 6
1. N. Amir, J. Elias, H. Klumpp, and A. Przeworski. “Attentional bias to threat in social phobia: Facilitated processing of threat or difficulty disengaging attention from threat?” Behaviour Research and Therapy 41, no. 11 (2003): 1325–1335; Yair Bar-Haim, Dominique Lamy, Lee Pergamin, Marian J. Bakermans-Kranenburg, and Marinus H. Van Ijzendoorn. “Threat-related attentional bias in anxious and nonanxious individuals: A meta-analytic study.” Psychological Bulletin 133, no. 1 (2007): 1–24; Elaine Fox, Riccardo Russo, and Kevin Dutton. “Attentional bias for threat: Evidence for delayed disengagement from emotional faces.” Cognition & Emotion 16, no. 3 (2002): 355–379.
2. Jongwoon Choi, Gary W. Hecht, and William B. Tayler. “Strategy selection, surrogation, and strategic performance measurement systems.” Journal of Accounting Research 51, no. 1 (2013): 105–133.
3. Jess Benhabib, Alberto Bisin, and Andrew Schotter. “Present-bias, quasi-hyperbolic discounting, and fixed costs.” Games and Economic Behavior 69, no. 2 (2010): 205–223; David Laibson. “Golden eggs and hyperbolic discounting.” The Quarterly Journal of Economics 112, no. 2 (1997): 443–478.
4. Jonathan Baron and Ilana Ritov. “Reference points and omission bias.” Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 59, no. 3 (1994): 475–498; Johanna H. Kordes-de Vaal. “Intention and the omission bias: Omissions perceived as nondecisions.” Acta Psychological 93, no. 1–3 (1996): 161–172.
5. “Circuit City CEO resigns amid troubles.” The Mercury News, Sept. 22, 2008, www.mercurynews.com
6. Glenn E. Littlepage and Julie R. Poole. “Time allocation in decision making groups.” Journal of Social Behavior and Personality 8, no. 4 (1993): 663–672; Michael J. Oyster. “Performance Doesn't Tell the Whole Story.” Success in a Low-Return World. Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan, Cham, 2018, 77–86.
7. Jonathan Baron and John C. Hershey. “Outcome bias in decision evaluation.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 54, no. 4 (1988): 569–579; Philip J. Mazzocco, Mark D. Alicke, and Teresa L. Davis. “On the robustness of outcome bias: No constraint by prior culpability.” Basic and Applied Social Psychology 26, no. 2–3 (2004): 131–146.
8. Eugene F. Fama and Kenneth French. “Mutual fund performance.” Journal of Finance 63, no. 1 (2008): 389–416; Burton G. Malkiel. “Returns from investing in equity mutual funds 1971 to 1991.” The Journal of Finance 50, no. 2 (1995): 549–572; Dirk Nitzsche, Keith Cuthbertson, and Niall O'Sullivan. “Mutual fund performance.” SSRN (2006): 1–86. https://ssrn.com
9. Stephen J. Brown, William Goetzmann, Roger G. Ibbotson, and Stephen A. Ross. “Survivorship bias in performance studies.” The Review of Financial Studies 5, no. 4 (1992): 553–580; Jennifer N. Carpenter and Anthony W. Lynch. “Survivorship bias and attrition effects in measures of performance persistence.” Journal of Financial Economics 54, no. 3 (1999): 337–374.
10. Noel M. Tichy and Warren G. Bennis. Judgment: How Winning Leaders Make Great Calls. New York: Penguin, 2007.
11. Eugene Kim. “Jeff Bezos to employees: ‘One day, Amazon will fail’ but our job is to delay it as long as possible.” CNBC, Nov. 27, 2018, www.cnbc.com