Preamble: Opening doors and expanding horizons

1. 1. U.S. DOT, Bureau of Transportation Statistics, Table 2-9: U.S. Air Carrier (a) Safety Data (www.bts.gov/sites/bts.dot.gov/files/docs/browse-statistical-products-and-data/national-transportation-statistics/220806/ntsentire2018q1.pdf).
2. 2. See for example, “Flint Water Crisis,” The New York Times, October 8, 2016 (www.nytimes.com/news-event/flint-water-crisis).
3. 3. “How Your Refrigerator Has Kept Its Cool Over 40 Years of Efficiency Improvements,” Marianne DiMascio, American Council for an Energy Efficiency Economy Blog, September 11, 2014 (http://aceee.org/blog/2014/09/how-your-refrigerator-has-kept-its-co).
4. 4. “LED Basics,” Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, U.S. Department of Energy (www.energy.gov/eere/ssl/led-basics#how_efficient).
5. 5. T. Baer and F. Schlachter, “Lasers in Science and Industry: A Report to OSTP on the Contribution of Lasers to American Jobs and the American Economy” (www.laserfest.org/lasers/baer-schlachter.pdf).
6. 6. “Science the Endless Frontier,” A Report to the President by Vannevar Bush, Director of the Office of Scientific Research and Development, July, 1945, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. (www.nsf.gov/od/lpa/nsf50/vbush1945.htm).
7. 7. “Banking Act of 1933 (Glass-Steagall),” Julia Maues, Federal Reserve History (www.federalreservehistory.org/essays/glass_steagall_act).
8. 8. “Financial Services Modernization Act of 1999, Commonly Called Gramm-Leach-Bliley,” Joe Mahon, Federal Reserve History
   (www.federalreservehistory.org/essays/gramm_leach_bliley_act).

Introduction: What is science and technology policy

1. 1. The principal engineering fields are biomedical, chemical, civil, electrical, environmental, mechanical, software and systems, including industrial.
2. 2. Mathematics is a very broad discipline that is usually divided among its specialties as follows: algebra, analysis (including calculus), combinatorics, computation (including numerical analysis), geometry and topology, operations, and probability and statistics.
3. 3. The energy and telecommunications sectors each accounted for 5.9 percent of the U.S. GDP in 2015.
4. 4. Defense accounted for 3.3 percent of the U.S. GDP in 2015; transportation accounted for 3.0 percent.
5. 5. Agriculture accounted for 1.3 percent of U.S GDP in 2014; agriculturally related industries, such as food services, beverages and apparel, contributed a total of 5.7 percent.

Chapter 1: The early years 1787–1860

1. 1. J. Wooley and G. Peters, The American Presidency Project, “William J. Clinton, XLII President of the United States: 1993-2001, Remarks on Presenting the National Medals of Science and Technology, March 14, 2000—www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid = 58246.
2. 2. Jeffrey M. Smith, who worked at the White House Office of Science and Technology Policy and prepared President Clinton’s remarks, had learned of the existence of the inscription on the first American coin and persuaded the Smithsonian to lend it to him for the day so the president could use it. As Jeff Smith tells the story, after the medal ceremony ended, the president absently put the coin in his jacket pocket and left the room without handing it back. Smith ran after the president, catching up to him as he got into an elevator. “Mr. President, Mr. President, the coin, the coin!” Jeff remembers calling out. Suddenly realizing he still had the $300,000 museum piece, Clinton reached into his pocket, pulled it out and tossed it nonchalantly to Jeff, just as the elevator doors were closing.
3. 3. It’s interesting to note that the words, “In God We Trust,” did not appear on U.S. coins until 1864.
4. 4. Harvard, founded in 1636, legitimately lays claim to being the oldest institution of higher learning in the United States. The University of Georgia, which received its charter in 1785 but did not begin admitting students until 1801, and the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, which received its charter in 1789 and took in its first class of students in 1795, are generally acknowledged as the earliest public institutions of higher learning.
5. 5. See for example, “The Federalist Papers,” The Avalon Project Documents in Law, History and Diplomacy, Lillian Goldman Law Library, Yale Law School, Yale University (http://avalon.law.yale.edu/subject_menus/fed.asp).
6. 6. The American Philosophical Society’s Mission Statement can be found at https://amphilsoc.org/about/missionstatement.
7. 7. Taken from the original bylaws of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (www.amacad.org/content.aspx?d=1424).
8. 8. Science and the Founding Fathers (W.W. Norton, 1995), by I. Bernard Cohen, a noted historian of science, provides valuable, although occasionally controversial, insights into the influence of science on the writers of the Declaration of Independence and the American Constitution.
9. 9. “From George Washington to the United States Senate and House of Representatives, 8 January 1790,” Founders Online, National Archives, last modified December 28, 2016, http://founders.archives.gov/documents/Washington/05-04-02-0361. [Original source: The Papers of George Washington, Presidential Series, vol. 4, 8 September 1789 – 15 January 1790, ed. Dorothy Twohig. Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1993, pp. 543–549.]
10. 10. Election law at the time awarded the vice presidency to the runner-up in the presidential election.
11. 11. Amendment XII, which the states ratified in 1804, remedied the constitutional defect by requiring electors to cast a single vote for a combined slate of president and vice president.
12. 12. See, for example, https://www.monticello.org/site/jefferson/louisiana-purchase.
13. 13. See, for example, https://www.monticello.org/site/jefferson/lewis-and-clark-expedition.
14. 14. The Archives of the Smithsonian provide a detailed history of the institution (https://siarchives.si.edu/history/general-history).
15. 15. S. Newcomb, “Memoir of Joseph Henry” (Read before the National Academy of Sciences, April 21, 1880—www.princeton.edu/ssp/joseph-henry-project/joseph-henry/henry-joseph-newcomb.pdf).
16. 16. The Smithsonian Institution Archives contains James Smithson’s handwritten will and testament: siarchives.si.edu/history/exhibits/stories/last-will-and-testament-october-23-1826.
17. 17. See Smithsonian Institution, Board of Regents, Minutes of December 3, 1846 (https://siarchives.si.edu/collections/siris_sic_11479).
18. 18. The American Philosophical Society, of which Joseph Henry was a distinguished member, houses a collection of Henry’s letters from 1836 to 1878. A concise biography can be found at www.amphilsoc.org/collections/view?docId=ead/Mss.B.H39p-ead.xml.
19. 19. The Smithsonian Libraries contains an account of the Exploring Expedition, available at http://www.sil.si.edu/DigitalCollections/usexex/navigation/ScientificText/USExEx19_14select.cfm.
20. 20. See for example, N. Kollerstrom, J. Hist. Astr., 23, 185–192 (1992) (dioi.org/kn/halleyhollow.htm).
21. 21. See Peter W. Sinnema, “Branch: Britain, Representation and Nineteenth-Century History,” June 2012 (www.branchcollective.org/?ps_articles=peter-w-sinnema-10-april-1818-john-cleves-symmess-no-1-circular).
22. 22. The Smithsonian “Castle” was designed by the architect James Renwick, and at the time of its construction, it occupied a piece of land separated from downtown Washington by the Washington City Canal, which connected today’s Anacostia River with the Potomac River. The canal was filled in, and a new street, now known as Constitution Avenue, replaced it. In 1865, a fire destroyed a portion of the Castle requiring major reconstruction. The building, which was completely restored to its Victorian grandeur in 1968 and 1969, is on the registry of Historic Landmarks. See siarchives.si.edu/history/smithsonian-institution-building-castle.
23. 23. See “150 Years of Advancing Science: A History of AAAS Origins 1848–1899,” AAAS Archives and Records Center (archives.aaas.org/exhibit/origins2.php).
24. 24. A.H. Dupree, Science in the Federal Government, The Johns Hopkins University Press (Baltimore, Md., 1986), pp. 115–148.
25. 25. C.M. Green, Washington: A History of the Capital, 1800-1950 (Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey, 1976), p. 167.
26. 26. D.S. Greenberg, The Politics of Science—New Edition (The University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1999), p. 55.

Chapter 2: The civil war era and its legacy years 1860–1869

1. 1. See, for example, Scientists and National Policy Making, R. Gilpin, ed., (Columbia University Press, New York, 1964).
2. 2. See F. Seitz, A Selection of Highlights from the History of the National Academy of Sciences—1863–2005, University Press of America (Lanham, Md., 2006) and www.nasonline.org/about-nas/history/highlights/.
3. 3. A.H. Dupree, Science in the Federal Government, The Johns Hopkins University Press (Baltimore, Md., 1986), pp. 115–148.
4. 4. A.H. Dupree, Proc. Am. Phil. Soc. 101 (5), October 31, 1957, pp. 434–440.
5. 5. They still don’t.
6. 6. Two novels are particularly evocative: D. Brown, Inferno (Doubleday—Random House, LLC, New York, 2013) and Angels and Demons (Washington Square Press—Simon and Schuster, New York, 2000).
7. 7. The scientists chose the name Lazzaroni tongue in cheek. The word was 18th century Neopolitan slang for the homeless idlers and beggars who used the Hospital of St. Lazarus in Naples as a refuge.
8. 8. See, for example, H.A. Neal, T.L. Smith and J.B. McCormick, Beyond Sputnik: U.S. Science Policy in the 21st Century (The University of Michigan Press, 2008) and references therein.
9. 9. www.happyvermont.com/2015/06/25/visiting-strafford-vermont/.
10. 10. 7 U.S. Code § 301—Land Grant Aid of Colleges, Thirty-Seventh Congress. Sess. II. Ch. 130.1862, pp. 503, 504 (http://uscode.house.gov/statviewer.htm?volume=12&page=503#) or alternatively (www.ourdocuments.gov/doc.php?flash=true&doc=33&page=transcript).
11. 11. The most recognizable Land Grant institutions in science and technology today include the University of California—Berkeley, Cornell University, the University of Illinois at Champaign-Urbana, the University of Maryland at College Park, the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Ohio State University, Michigan State University, Pennsylvania State University and Texas A&M University.
12. 12. A.H. Dupree, Science in the Federal Government, The Johns Hopkins University Press (Baltimore, Md., 1986), pp. 144, 145.
13. 13. See Report of the National Academy of Sciences for the Year 1887-Appendix D Govt. Printing Office, Washington, DC, 1888).
14. 14. “Penn Biographies—Alexander Dallas Bache (1806-1867),” Penn University Archives and Records Center (www.archives.upenn.edu/people/1800s/bache_alexdr_dallas.html).
15. 15. A.H. Dupree, op. cit., p. 147.
16. 16. See “The Homestead Act of 1862,” Educator Resources, National Archives (www.ourdocuments.gov/doc.php?flash=true&doc=33&page=transcript).
17. 17. The novel is currently available as a Penguin Classic paper back: Mark Twain and Charles Dudley Warner, The Gilded Age: A Tale of Today (Penguin Publishing Group, New York, 2001).
18. 18. “Pacific Railway Act of 1862,” Thirty-Seventh Congress Sess. II. Ch. 120, 1862, pp.489–498 (memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/ampage?collId=llsl&fileName=012/llsl012.db&recNum=520).
19. 19. 7 U.S. Code § 2201—“Establishment of Department,” Thirty-Seventh Congress. Sess. II. Ch. 72, 1862, pp. 387, 388 (uscode.house.gov/statviewer.htm?volume=12&page=387).
20. 20. 7 U.S. Code § 361a—“Agricultural Experiment Stations,” Forty-Ninth Congress. Sess. II. Ch. 314, 1887, pp. 441, 442 (uscode.house.gov/statviewer.htm?volume=24&page=440).
21. 21. 7 U.S. Code § 343—“Cooperative Extension Activities,” Sixty-Third Congress, Sess. II, Ch. 79, 1914, pp. 372–374 (uscode.house.gov/statviewer.htm?volume=24&page=440).
22. 22. 7 U.S. Code § 2202—“Executive Department; Secretary,” Fiftieth Congress, Sess. II Ch. 122, p. 659 (uscode.house.gov/statviewer.htm?volume=25&page=659).

Chapter 3: The gilded age 1869–1900

1. 1. See, for example, “John Quincy Adams, VI President of the United States, 1825–1829, First Annual Message, December 6, 1825” (The American Presidency Project, The University of California Document Archive—www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=29467).
2. 2. A.H. Frazier, United States Standards of Weights and Measures: Their Creation and Creators (Smithsonian Institution Press, City of Washington, 1978—repository.si.edu/bitstream/handle/10088/2439/SSHT-0040_Hi_res.pdf).
3. 3. “A Brief History of the Naval Observatory,” (Naval Oceanography Portal—www.usno.navy.mil/USNO/about-us/brief-history).
4. 4. In 1830, John Quincy Adams successfully ran for the House of Representatives, the only ex-president to do so. He served there until his death in 1848, following a massive cerebral hemorrhage on the floor of the House.
5. 5. A.E. Theberge, The Coast Survey 1807–1867—History of the Commissioned Corps of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Vol. I, (NOAA Central Library, National Centers for Environmental Information, U.S. Dept. of Commerce, 1998—www.lib.noaa.gov/noaainfo/heritage/coastsurveyvol1/CONTENTS.html).
6. 6. Ferdinand Hassler (1770–1843): A Twenty-Year Retrospective, 1987–2007, NIST Spec. Pub. 1068, ed. by H. Hassler and C.A. Burroughs (U.S. Dept. of Commerce, Tech. Admin, NIST, March 2007—www.nist.gov/sites/default/files/documents/nvl/HasslerSP1068.pdf).
7. 7. A.H. Dupree, op. cit., p. 52.
8. 8. On May 29, 1832, shortly before the House of Representatives approved the bill that named Hassler head of the Survey for the second time, Rep. Aaron Ward of New York accused him of squandering federal resources during his first stint as superintendent. But his years in scientific purgatory—except for his short stint from 1830 to 1931 as head of the Office of Weights and Measures—left Hassler far savvier politically. He provided a careful justification for the Survey’s expected expenditures, building his case on the commercial benefits of precision instrumentation and meticulous measurements. His friendship with the occupant of the White House, President Andrew Jackson, certainly did not hurt his cause. On February 12 of the previous year, Hassler had gained Jackson’s attention, when he had positioned himself under the south colonnade of the White House to observe a solar eclipse. [F.R. Hassler, “Results of the Observation of the Solar Eclipse of 12th February 1831, etc.,” Trans. Amer. Phil. Soc., New Series, 4 (1834) p. 131].
9. 9. See, for example, G. Gugliotta, “New Estimate Raises Civil War Death Toll,” The New York Times, April 12, 2012 (www.nytimes.com/2012/04/03/science/civil-war-toll-up-by-20-percent-in-new-estimate.html).
10. 10. Although Andrew Johnson was a Southerner, he had been scathing in his opposition to secession by the Confederate states, perhaps even more so than Lincoln. Upon acceding to the presidency, Johnson had been fully expected to take a hard line on Reconstruction and punish members of the Confederate army and former slave owners. But he unexpectedly reversed course and in fairly short order offered general amnesty to most of the former rebels. His continued flouting of policies favored by congressional hardliners eventually led to his impeachment by the House of Representatives early in 1868. After a relatively short trial, the Senate voted to exonerate him but only by a margin of a single vote. [“The Impeachment of Andrew Johnson (1868) President of the United States,” (The United States Senate: Art and History, Senate Historical Office—www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/common/briefing/Impeachment_Johnson.htm)].
11. 11. United States Military Academy West Point History (USMA Library—www.usma.edu/library/SitePages/history.aspx).
12. 12. G. Thomas, “The Founders and the Idea of a National University: Constituting the American Mind” (Cambridge University Press, New York, 2015), p. 87.
13. 13. Military Peace Establishment Act, Seventh Congress, Sess. I, Ch. 11, 1802. p. 137 (www.loc.gov/law/help/statutes-at-large/7th-congress/c7.pdf).
14. 14. A.H. Dupree, op. cit., pp. 195-208.
15. 15. R.C. Cochrane, The National Academy of Sciences: The First Hundred Years, 1863–1963 (National Academy of Sciences, Washington, 1978), pp. 127–129.
16. 16. See J.W. Powell, The Exploration of the Colorado River and Its Canyons (Dover Publications, Inc., Mineola, New York, 1961—Originally published by Flood and Vincent under the title Canyons of the Colorado), p. 131.
17. 17. R.C Cochrane, op. cit., pp. 100–127.
18. 18. Ibid., p. 130.
19. 19. Ibid., p. 131.
20. 20. A.H. Dupree, op. cit., pp. 209, 210.
21. 21. Ibid., p. 215–231.
22. 22. R.C. Cochrane, op. cit., pp. 146, 147.
23. 23. The Coast and Interior Survey along with the Navy’s Hydrographic Office would constitute one bureau; the existing Geological Survey, a second; meteorological activities including the Signal Service’s weather mapping function, a third; and a central physical observatory and laboratory devoted to solar and terrestrial radiation and other “investigations in exact science,” including new electrical standards and the existing activities of the Coast Survey’s Office of Weights and Standards, the fourth.
24. 24. The nine-member commission would comprise the president of the National Academy of Sciences, the Secretary of the Smithsonian, “two civilians of high scientific reputation” appointed by the president of the United States, an officer of the Army Corps of Engineers, a Navy professor of mathematics also appointed by the president, the superintendent of the Coast and Geodetic Survey, the director of the Geological Survey and the head of the meteorological bureau.
25. 25. In 2014, the last year for which detailed data are available, American universities spent $63.7 billion on science and engineering research and development, of which federal funding accounted for 58 percent. [National Science Board, 2016, Science and Engineering Indicators 2016, Arlington, VA: National Science Foundation (NSB-2016-1)—www.nsf.gov/statistics/2016/nsb20161/#/report/chapter-5/expenditures-and-funding-for-academic-r-d].
26. 26. “Testimony Before the Joint Commission to Consider the Present Organization of the Signal Service, Geological Survey, Coast and Geodetic Survey, and the Hydrographic Office of the Navy, With a View to Secure Greater Efficiency and Economy of Administration of the Public Service in Said Bureaus, Authorized by the Sundry Civil Act Approved July 7, 1884, and continued by the Sundry Civil Act Approved March 3, 1885” (Government Printing Office, Washington, 1886), p. 1078 (https://books.google.com/books?id=Hocj26LFyPwC&pg=PA1019&lpg=PA1019&dq=powell+testimony+allison+commission+1886&source=bl&ots=2bWtBLax94&sig=nW-R4Q3zxLH2IZlo9xv638wsc6M&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwi1oKKN-OPVAhUK7IMKHVnQDyo4ChDoAQgpMAE#v=onepage&q=powell%20testimony%20allison%20commission%201886&f=false)
27. 27. Ibid., p. 1082.
28. 28. See K.J. Holmes, Nature 501, 310 (2013) and references therein.
29. 29. A.H. Dupree, op. cit., pp. 233–235.
30. 30. A map showing how Western state lines might have been drawn based on drainage and irrigation considerations can be found at bigthink.com/strange-maps/489-how-the-west-wasnt-won-powells-water-based-states.
31. 31. In 1890, Powell’s budget for the Geological Survey’s topographical study west of the 100^th meridian (the West) was slashed from a proposed $700,000 to a mere $162,500. (Fifty-First Congress. Sess. I. Ch. 837, 1890, p. 391.)
32. 32. R.C. Cochrane, op. cit., p. 157.
33. 33. Ibid., pp. 159-161.
34. 34. J.M. Michael, “The National Board of Health: 1879-1883,” Public Health Rep. 126 (1), January–February 2011, pp. 123–129 (www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3001811/).
35. 35. James Carroll and Walter Reed, for whom the National Military Center in Bethesda, Md. is named, are credited with the discovery.
36. 36. “An Act to Prevent the Introduction of Infectious or Contagious Diseases into the United States and to Establish a National Board of Health,” Forty-Fifth Congress. Sess. III. Ch. 202. March 3, 1879.
37. 37. “Annual report of the National Board of Health, 1883” (U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC, 1884.)
38. 38. A.H. Dupree, op. cit., pp. 263–267.

Chapter 4: A new century—A new America 1900–1925

1. 1. G. Gamm and S.S. Smith, “Steering the Senate: The Consolidation of Senate Party Leadership, 1879–1913,” Congress and History Conf., Pol. Sci. Dept. and Sch. of Hum., Arts, and Soc. Sci., Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Mass., May 30-31, 2003.
2. 2. Article I Sec. 2 of the Constitution stipulates that: “The Number of Representatives shall not exceed one for every thirty Thousand, but each State shall have at Least one Representative…” Until 1911, Congress routinely increased the size of its membership to account for population growth. The Apportionment Act of 1911 (Pub. Law 62–5, 37 Stat. 13 set the size of the House of Representatives at 435, effective in 1913 with the election of the 63rd Congress.
3. 3. The House office complex comprises the Cannon (1909), Longworth (1933) and Rayburn (1965) buildings.
4. 4. The Senate complex comprises the Russell (1908), Dirksen (1958) and Hart (1982) buildings.
5. 5. A.H. Frazier, United States Standards of Weights and Measures: Their Creation and Creators (Smithsonian Institution Press, City of Washington, 1978—repository.si.edu/bitstream/handle/10088/2439/SSHT-0040_Hi_res.pdf).
6. 6. “A Solar Eclipse for the Ages,” Home, News, National Centers for Environmental Information, National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration (www.ncei.noaa.gov/news/1900-total-solar-eclipse).
7. 7. See, for example, “Tesla—Master of Lighting: Life and Legacy—War of the Currents,” PBS.org (www.pbs.org/tesla/ll/ll_warcur.html) and “The War of the Currents: AC vs. DC Power,” U.S. Department of Energy, November 18, 2014 (energy.gov/articles/war-currents-ac-vs-dc-power).
8. 8. A.H. Dupree, Science in the Federal Government, The Johns Hopkins University Press (Baltimore, Md., 1986), pp. 273.
9. 9. For a comprehensive history of the National Bureau of Standards, see R.C. Cochrane, Measures for Progress: A History of the National Bureau of Standards—America in Two Centuries, an Inventory (Arno Press, New York, 1976).
10. 10. Public Law 177—“An Act to Establish the National Bureau of Standards,” Fifty-Sixth Congress, Sess. II. Ch. 872. March 3, 1901, pp. 1449, 1450 (http://uscode.house.gov/statviewer.htm?volume=31&page=1449).
11. 11. Theodore Roosevelt became president following William McKinley’s death from an assassin’s bullet on September 14, 1901.
12. 12. Transformers trace their American origin to Joseph Henry’s work in the 1830s, although practical devices did not enter the marketplace until the 1880s.
13. 13. 30 U.S.C. § 1—“An Act to Establish in the Department of the Interior a Bureau of Mines,” Sixty-First Congress, Sess. II. Ch. 240, May 16, 1910, pp. 369, 370 (uscode.house.gov/statviewer.htm?volume = 36&page = 369#).
14. 14. F.W. Powell, The Bureau of Mines: Its History, Activities and Organization (The Institute for Government Research, D. Appleton and Company, New York, 1922), p. 5.
15. 15. 50 U.S.C. § 161—“An Act Authorizing the Conservation, Production, and Exploitation of Helium Gas, a Mineral Resource Pertaining to the National Defense, and to the Development of Commercial Aeronautics, and for Other Purposes,” Sixty-Eighth Congress, Sess. II, Ch. 426. March 3, 1925, pp. 1110, 1111 (uscode.house.gov/statviewer.htm?volume = 43&page = 1110#).
16. 16. “World War One: How the German Zeppelin Wrought Terror,” BBC News, England, August 4, 2014 (www.bbc.com/news/uk-england-27517166).
17. 17. “Building the Panama Canal, 1903-1914—Milestones 1899-1913,” Office of the Historian, U.S. Department of State (history.state.gov/milestones/1899-1913/panama-canal).
18. 18. See, for example, “Our History,” U.S. Forest Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture (www.fs.fed.us/learn/our-history).
19. 19. “John Muir’s Yosemite,” T. Perrottet, Smithsonian Magazine, July 2008 (www.smithsonianmag.com/history/john-muirs-yosemite-10737).
20. 20. “Hetch Hetchy Environmental Debates,” The Center for Legislative Archives, National Archives, Washington, D.C. (www.archives.gov/legislative/features/hetch-hetchy).
21. 21. Sixty-Third Congress, Sess. I, H.R. 7207 [Report 41], August 3, 1913 (archive.org/stream/hetchhetchygrant00unit/hetchhetchygrant00unit_djvu.txt).
22. 22. A.H. Dupree, op. cit. p. 252.
23. 23. Public Law 57-161, 43 U.S.C. § 391—“An Act Appropriating the Receipts from the Sale and Disposal of Public Lands in Certain States and Territories to the Construction of Irrigation Works for the Reclamation of Arid Lands,” Fifty-Seventh Congress. Sess. I. Ch. 1093, June 17, 1902, pp. 388–390 (uscode.house.gov/statviewer.htm?volume=32&page=388).
24. 24. See, for example, “Water in the West,” Bureau of Reclamation Historic Dams and Water Projects, National Park Service, U.S. Department of the Interior (www.nps.gov/nr/testing/ReclamationDamsAndWaterProjects/Water_In_The_West.html).
25. 25. “Agency History” (www.census.gov/history/www/census_then_now), United States Census Bureau.
26. 26. When the Department of Commerce and Labor split into separate departments, the Bureau of the Census moved to the Department of Commerce, where it has remained since.
27. 27. See Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum at https://airandspace.si.edu/.
28. 28. “Samuel Pierpont Langley, 1834-1906,” Smithsonian History, Smithsonian Institution Archives (siarchives.si.edu/history/samual-pierpont-langley).
29. 29. In 1955, the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory merged with the Harvard College Observatory and moved to Cambridge, Massachusetts.
30. 30. “Charles Doolittle Walcott, 1850–1927,” Smithsonian History, Smithsonian Institution Archives (siarchives.si.edu/history/charles-doolittle-walcott).
31. 31. A. Roland, “The National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics 1915–1958,” Model Research (NASA SP-4103, Washington, D.C., 1985) pp. 1–26 (articles.adsabs.harvard.edu//full/1985NASSP4103.....R/0000001.000.html).
32. 32. A.R. Buchalter and P.M Miller, “The National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, An Annotated Bibliography,” Monographs in Aerospace History #55 (NASA SP-2014-4555, Washington, D.C., 2014), pp. 20–22 (history.nasa.gov/monograph55.pdf).
33. 33. A.H. Dupree, op. cit., p. 286.
34. 34. “National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics: Letter from the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution Transmitting a Memorial on the Need of a National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics in the United States,” February 1, 1915, Referred to the Committee on Naval Affairs, 63rd Congress, 3rd Session, House of Representatives, Document No. 1549 (books.google.com/books?id=oJ03AQAAIAAJ&pg=RA1-PA35&lpg=RA1-PA35&dq=smithsonian+institution+board+of+regents+aeronautics+february+1+1915&source=bl&ots=P8pp9tTcNL&sig=i5bmLaxem7SprZWQhMzvM6fRYa8&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwj14M3J3J3WAhUFw4MKHQ_1AFYQ6AEIOjAF#v=onepage&q=smithsonian%20institution%20board%20of%20regents%20aeronautics%20february%201%201915&f=false).
35. 35. Public Law 271, 63rd Cong., 3rd Sess., March 3, 1915 (38 Stat. 930).
36. 36. “National Aeronautics and Space Act of 1958,” Public Law 85-568, 72 Stat. 426; signed into law, July 29, 1958 (Record Group 255, National Archives and Records Administration, Washington, D.C.; NASA Historical Reference Collection, History Office, NASA Headquarters, Washington, D.C.—history.nasa.gov/spaceact.html).
37. 37. www.nih.gov/about-nih.
38. 38. www.wrnmmc.capmed.mil/About%20Us/SitePages/Home.aspx.
39. 39. “Kinyoun’s Early Years—Dr. Joseph Kinyoun The Indispensable Forgotten Man,” History, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, NIH (www.niaid.nih.gov/about/joseph-kinyoun-indispensable-man-early-years).
40. 40. “NYU Langone History,” NYU Medical School History, Lillian and Clarence de la Chapelle Medical Archives, NYU Health Sciences Library (archives.med.nyu.edu/content/nyu-langone-history).
41. 41. “Bellevue Hospital Medical College: A Guide to the Records,” Bellevue Hospital Medical College, Lillian and Clarence de la Chapelle Medical Archives, NYU Health Sciences Library (archives.med.nyu.edu/collections/bellevue-hospital-medical-college-guide-records).
42. 42. “Andrew Carnegie’s Story,” Carnegie Corporation of New York (www.carnegie.org/interactives/foundersstory/#!).
43. 43. “The Hygienic Laboratory—Dr. Joseph Kinyoun The Indispensable Forgotten Man,” History, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, NIH (www.niaid.nih.gov/about/joseph-kinyoun-indispensable-man-hygienic-laboratory).
44. 44. “The Marine Hospital Service—Dr. Joseph Kinyoun The Indispensable Forgotten Man,” History, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, NIH (www.niaid.nih.gov/about/joseph-kinyoun-indispensable-man-marine-hospital-service).
45. 45. “Army Medical Museum and Library,” Historic Medical Sites in the Washington, DC Area—Celebrating the Bicentennial of the Nation’s Capital, History of Medicine, U.S. National Library of Medicine, NIH (www.nlm.nih.gov/hmd/medtour/armymuslib.html).
46. 46. See, for example, P. McSherry, www.spanamwar.com/casualties.htm. The total does not include 260 American sailors who lost their lives when the USS Maine sank in Havana harbor, the event that triggered the war.
47. 47. Ibid.
48. 48. “An Act Making Appropriations for Sundry Civilian Expenses of the Government for the Fiscal Year Ending June Thirtieth, Nineteen Hundred and Two—Under the Treasury Department, Public Buildings, Marine Hospitals,” Fifty-Sixth Congress, Sess. II, Ch. 853, March 3, 1901, p. 1137.
49. 49. See for example, “Origins of the National Institutes of Health—The 1900’s Bring Change,” History of Medicine, U.S. National Library of Medicine, NIH (www.nlm.nih.gov/exhibition/nih_origins/change.html).
50. 50. A.H. Dupree, op. cit., p. 269.
51. 51. “An Act To Change the Name of the Public Health and Marine Hospital Service to the Public Health Service, To Increase the Pay of Officers of Said Service, and for Other Purposes,” Sixty-Second Congress, Sess. II, Ch. 288, August 14, 1912, p. 309.
52. 52. “Hamlet, Act II,” William Shakespeare.
53. 53. The Geneva protocols prohibited both, beginning in 1925.
54. 54. J.K. Taubenberger and D.M. Morensi, “1918 Influenza: the Mother of All Pandemics,” Emerg Infect Dis, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 12 (1), 15-22 (2006)—www.webcitation.org/5kCUlGdKu?url=http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/EID/vol12no01/05-0979.htm.
55. 55. S.D. Collins, “The Influenza Epidemic of 1928–1929 with Comparative Data for 1918-1919,” Am. J. Pub. Health, XX (2), 119–129 (1930).
56. 56. Seventy-First Congress, Sess. II. Ch. 320, May 26, 1930, pp. 379, 380.
57. 57. The name was changed to National Institutes of Health (plural) in 1948.
58. 58. A.H. Dupree, op. cit., pp. 306-307.
59. 59. For a comprehensive history of the Superconducting Super Collider project, see M. Riordan, L. Hoddeson and A.W. Kolb, Tunnel Visions: The Rise and Fall of the Superconducting Super Collider, The University of Chicago Press (Chicago, 2015).
60. 60. History, U.S. Naval Research Laboratory. www.nrl.navy.mil/about-nrl/history.
61. 61. S. Olson, “The National Academy of Sciences at 150,” PNAS 111, Suppl. 2, 9327–9364 (2014). www.pnas.org/content/111/Supplement_2/9327.full.
62. 62. A.H. Dupree, op. cit., pp. 308–312.
63. 63. “Report of the National Academy of Sciences for the Year 1916,” p. 22 (United States Government Printing Office, GPO, Washington, D.C., 1917). babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=osu.32435061127254;view=1up;seq=24.
64. 64. For a detailed description of the creation of the National Research Council, see R.C. Cochrane, The National Academy of Sciences: The First Hundred Years, 1963–1963 (National Academy of Sciences, Washington, 1978), pp. 200–241.
65. 65. S. Olson, op. cit., p. 9329.
66. 66. A.H. Dupree, op. cit., pp. 311–315.
67. 67. The Manhattan Project was originally given the code name, “Manhattan District,” by the Army Corps of Engineers, or simply, “Manhattan,” since many of the original nuclear scientists and engineers worked in laboratories and universities in New York City. For a compelling read, see N.P Davis, Lawrence and Oppenheimer (Simon and Schuster, New York, 1968). For the official history of the Manhattan Project, see H. D. Smyth, Atomic Energy for Military Purposes, the Official Report on the Development of the Atomic Bomb under the Auspices of the United States Government” (Princeton University Press, Princeton, 1945). archive.org/details/atomicenergyform00smytrich. The official history is often called simply, “The Smyth Report.”
68. 68. R.C. Cochrane, op. cit., pp. 235–236.
69. 69. Executive Order 2859—National Research Council of the National Academy of Sciences, Executive Orders, Federal Register, National Archives. www.archives.gov/federal-register/codification/executive-order/02859.html.
70. 70. V. Bush, Science the Endless Frontier—A Report to the President on a Program for Postwar Scientific Research, July 1945 (Reprinted as part of the Tenth Anniversary Observance by the National Science Foundation, Washington, D.C., 1960). archive.org/stream/scienceendlessfr00unit/scienceendlessfr00unit_djvu.txt.
71. 71. H. Ford with S. Crowther, My Life and Work (Doubleday, Garden City, 1923), p. 73. archive.org/stream/mylifeandwork00crowgoog#page/n86/mode/2up/search/multitude.
72. 72. For a concise history of the period, see R.F. Weingroff, “Federal Aid Road Act of 1916: Building the Foundation,” Public Roads, 60 (1), Summer 1996 (Federal Highway Administration Research and Technology, U.S. Department of Transportation. www.fhwa.dot.gov/publications/publicroads/96summer/p96su2.cfm).
73. 73. “Statistical Abstract of the United States: 1926,” U.S. Census Bureau (www.census.gov/library/publications/1927/compendia/statab/49ed.html).
74. 74. The Tenth Amendment reads, “The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people.”
75. 75. See caselaw.findlaw.com/us-supreme-court/204/24.html.
76. 76. Article I, Section 8, Clause 3.
77. 77. “History of the Interstate Highway System,” Federal Highway Administration, U.S. Department of Transportation. www.fhwa.dot.gov/interstate/history.cfm.

Chapter 5: From depression to global engagement 1925–1945

1. 1. H. Hoover, “The Nation and Science,” Science, LXV (1672), 26-29 (1927).
2. 2. A.H. Dupree, op. cit., pp. 342.
3. 3. V. Bush, op. cit.
4. 4. See, for example, R.V. Bruce, Bell: Alexander Graham Bell and the Conquest of Solitude (Little Brown and Company, Boston, 1976), p. 181.
5. 5. Seth Shulman, in his investigative book, The Telephone Gambit (W.W. Norton and Company, New York, 2008) makes a compelling argument that Bell stole his design from Elisha Gray, a well-known and well-regarded electrical engineer who co-founded the Western Electric Company. Gray, who had filed a “caveat” with the Patent Office three weeks prior to Bell’s filing, challenged Bell’s patent in court, but lost his case, even though, as Shulman points out, the evidence suggested he had an extremely strong case.
6. 6. A photograph of the Alexander Graham Bell’s original patent filing can be viewed at unwritten-record.blogs.archives.gov/patent-number-174-465alexander-graham-bellrecord-group.
7. 7. R.V. Bruce, op. cit., p. 229.
8. 8. Ibid., p. 231.
9. 9. Ibid., p. 340.
10. 10. “Volta Laboratory and Bureau,” Washington, DC: A National Register of Historic Places Travel Itinerary, U.S. National Park Service. www.nps.gov/nr/travel/wash/DC14.HTM.
11. 11. R.V. Bruce, op. cit., p. 354.
12. 12. For a summary of science in the Depression and New Deal Era, see A.H. Dupree, op. cit., pp. 345-368.
13. 13. J.K. Wright and G.F. Carter, Isaiah Bowman 1878—1850: A Biographical Memoir (National Academy of Sciences, Washington, D.C., 1959).
14. 14. books.google.com/books?id=10MrAAAAYAAJ&pg=PP8&lpg=PP8&dq=Research+-+A+National+Resource+Charles+H.+Judd&source=bl&ots=qvQO475pYR&sig=ZOjUQhgccJP8xA-xitCp5jV8kS4&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwj1nb2qqorXAhUM8IMKHWr3Aq0Q6AEIKDAA#v=onepage&q=Research%20-%20A%20National%20Resource%20Charles%20H.%20Judd&f=false.
15. 15. “An Act to Provide for, Foster, and Aid in Coordinating Research Relating to Cancer; to Establish the National Cancer Institute; and for Other Purposes,” Seventy-Fifth Congress, Sess. I. Ch. 565, Public Law No. 244 (“National Cancer Act of 1937,” About NCI, Legislative History, National Cancer Institute, NIH. www.cancer.gov/about-nci/legislative/history/national-cancer-act-1937).
16. 16. J.L. Pennick, Jr., C.W. Pursell, Jr., M.B. Sherwood and D.C. Swain, eds., The Politics of American Science: 1939 to the Present, Revised Edition (The MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass., 1972), p. 50.
17. 17. V. Bush, “Report of the President of the Carnegie Institution of Washington for the Year Ending October 31, 1939,” Yearbook No. 38, July 1,1938–June 30, 1939, pp. 5-6 (Carnegie Institution of Washington, Washington, D.C. 1939). archive.org/details/yearbookcarne38193839carn.
18. 18. V. Bush, Reprinted as part of the Tenth Anniversary Observance by the National Science Foundation, Washington, D.C., 1960). archive.org/stream/scienceendlessfr00unit/scienceendlessfr00unit_djvu.txt.
19. 19. J.L. Pennick, Jr., et al., op. cit., p. 10.
20. 20. Ibid., pp. 10-14.
21. 21. N.P Davis, Lawrence and Oppenheimer (Simon and Schuster, New York, 1968) and H. D. Smyth, Atomic Energy for Military Purposes, the Official Report on the Development of the Atomic Bomb under the Auspices of the United States Government” (Princeton University Press, Princeton, 1945) provide excellent historical renderings of the Manhattan Project.
22. 22. For Belgium, the issue would become moot after it’s surrender to German forces on May 28, 1940.
23. 23. N.P Davis, op. cit., p. 97.
24. 24. S.L. Schwartz, ed., Atomic Audit: The Costs and Consequences of U.S. Nuclear Weapons Since 1940 (Brookings Institution Press, Washington, DC, 1998)—The Costs of the Manhattan Project: www.brookings.edu/the-costs-of-the-manhattan-project.
25. 25. H.D. Smyth, op. cit., pp. 247–254.

Chapter 6: Donning the mantle of world leadership 1945–1952

1. 1. Life, August 27, 1945, p. 27 (100photos.time.com/photos/kiss-v-j-day-times-square-alfred-eisenstaedt).
2. 2. N.P Davis, Lawrence and Oppenheimer (Simon and Schuster, New York, 1968), p. 250.
3. 3. V. Bush, Science the Endless Frontier—A Report to the President on a Program for Postwar Scientific Research, July 1945 (Reprinted as part of the Tenth Anniversary Observance by the National Science Foundation, Washington, D.C., 1960). archive.org/stream/scienceendlessfr00unit/scienceendlessfr00unit_djvu.txt.
4. 4. D. McCullough, Truman (Simon and Schuster, New York, 1992), p. 355.
5. 5. A concise description of the America First Committee can be found in Krishnadev Calamur’s article in The Atlantic, which provides a context for President Donald Trump’s use of the slogan in his 2016 campaign and the messaging of the Trump White House (K. Calamur, “A Short History of “America First’,” The Atlantic, January 21, 2017. www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2017/01/trump-america-first/514037).
6. 6. J.L. Penick, Jr., C.W. Pursell, Jr., M.B. Sherwood and D.C. Swain, eds., The Politics of American Science 1939 to the Present, revised edition, The MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass., 1974), pp. 82–95.
7. 7. Science Policy Research Division, Congressional Research Service, Library of Congress, “The National Science Board: Science and Policy Management for the National Science Foundation 1968-1980”—Report for the Subcommittee on Science Research and Technology, Transmitted to the Committee on Science and Technology, U.S. House of Representatives, Ninety-Eighth Congress, First Session, Serial E (U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, 1983), p. 43.
8. 8. “The Technology Mobilization Act,” S. 2721, Seventy-Seventh Congress, Sess. II, 1942; submitted and referred to the Senate Subcommittee on War Mobilization of the Military Affairs Committee but never subjected to a vote.
9. 9. R.C. Cochrane, “The Post War Organization of Science,” The National Academy of Sciences: The First Hundred Years, 1863-1963 (The National Academy Press, Washington, DC, 1978), Ch. 14 (www.nap.edu/catalog/579/the-national-academy-of-sciences-the-first-hundred-years-1863).
10. 10. J.L. Penick, Jr. et al., op. cit., p. 83.
11. 11. Ibid., p. 84.
12. 12. R.C. Cochrane, loc. cit.
13. 13. “The National Science Board: Science and Policy Management for the National Science Foundation 1968-1980,” op. cit., p. 44.
14. 14. R.C. Cochrane, loc. cit.
15. 15. In an ironic historical twist, seven decades after the American Association for the Advancement of Science took its stance opposing Kilgore’s bill, it chose as its CEO Rush Holt, Jr., a physicist, former member of the House of Representatives from New Jersey and the son of the man Kilgore had defeated in the West Virginia Democratic primary in 1940.
16. 16. “The Government’s Wartime Research and Development, 1940-44, Part II, Findings and Recommendations,” Senate Subcommittee on War Mobilization, Report, Seventy-Ninth Congress, Sess. I, 1945, pp. 26-29, as quoted by J.L. Penick, Jr. et al., op. cit., pp. 103-105.
17. 17. H.S. Truman, “Special Message to the Congress Presenting a 21-Point Program for the Reconversion Period,” Public Papers 1945-1953 128, (Harry S. Truman Presidential Library). www.trumanlibrary.org/publicpapers/index.php?pid=136&st=&st1.
18. 18. See M. Lomask, “The Birth of NSF,” Mosaic, November/December 1975, 20–27 (1975). www.mosaicsciencemagazine.org/pdf_track.php?mode=A&pk=338.
19. 19. “Record of the 79th Congress (Second Session) 1946, Editorial Research Reports 1946 II (CQ Researcher, CQ Press, Washington, DC. http://library.cqpress.com/cqresearcher/document.php?id=cqresrre1946080300-H2_1.
20. 20. Congressional Record: Proceedings and Debates of the 79th Congress, Second Session, Senate, Tuesday July 2, 1946 (Government Printing Office, Washington, DC, 1946) pp. 8104, 8105. www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/GPO-CRECB-1946-pt7/content-detail.html.
21. 21. M. Lomask, op. cit., p. 26.
22. 22. R.C. Cochrane, op. cit., pp. 462, 463.
23. 23. Ibid., pp. 454-456.
24. 24. “A Short History of the National Institutes of Health—New Institutes,” Office of NIH History and Museum, National Institutes of Health. history.nih.gov/exhibits/history/docs/page_07.html.
25. 25. For an insightful analysis of the 1945-1950 NSF travails, see W.A. Blanpied, “Inventing US Science Policy,” (About NSF, History, National/Science Foundation). www.nsf.gov/about/history/nsf50/science_policy.jsp.
26. 26. D. McCullough, op. cit., p. 493.
27. 27. “News and Notes,” Science, 105, 171 (1947). science.sciencemag.org/content/105/2720/171.
28. 28. “Comparison of the Provisions of S. 525 and S. 526,” Science, 105, 253–254 (1947). science.sciencemag.org/content/105/2723/253.
29. 29. M. Lomask, op. cit., p. 26.
30. 30. R.C. Cochrane, op. cit., pp. 433–454.
31. 31. Thomas’s bill in its final form had a 24-member board.
32. 32. The Constitution provides that the president has a 10-day time window either sign or refuse to sign a bill. If the president fails to act within that time-window, the bill becomes law automatically provided Congress is in session. But if Congress is not in session, presidential inaction kills the legislation. It is called a “pocket veto,” and the president is not required to provide any explanation for his lack of action, although Truman did so.
33. 33. J.R Steelman, Science and Public Policy, Vol. I, A Program for the Nation: A Report to the President (Government Printing Office, Washington, DC, 1947).
34. 34. “Legislative History of the National Science Foundation Act of 1950, Appendix II” (Report No. 796 Accompanying H.R. 4846, 81^st Congress, June 14, 1949). www.nsf.gov/pubs/1952/b_1952_8.pdf.
35. 35. D. McCullough, op. cit., pp. 652, 661.
36. 36. Ibid., pp. 618-620, 628, 642.
37. 37. M. Lomask, op. cit., p. 27.
38. 38. “National Science Foundation Act of 1950,” Public Law 507; 42 U.S.C. § 16. See legcounsel.house.gov/Comps/81-507.pdf.
39. 39. “Special Message to Congress on Atomic Energy,” Public Papers, Harry S. Truman, 1945-1953, No. 156 (Harry S. Truman Presidential Library and Museum). www.trumanlibrary.org/publicpapers/index.php?pid=165&st=&st1.
40. 40. See, for example, V.C. Jones, United States Army in World War II, Special Studies—Manhattan: The Army and the Atomic Bomb, (Center of Military History, United States Army, Washington, DC, 1985), pp. 574–578. history.army.mil/html/books/011/11-10/CMH_Pub_11-10.pdf.
41. 41. R.C. Cochrane, op. cit., pp. 454–456.
42. 42. Public Law 585, 79th Cong., 2nd Sess., Ch. 724, 60 Stat., pp. 755–775; 42 U.S.C. § 1801 et seq. (1946) (www.loc.gov/law/help/statutes-at-large/79th-congress.php).
43. 43. B.S. Old, “The Evolution of the Office of Naval Research,” Physics Today, 14 (8), 30-35 (1961).
44. 44. Public Law 588, 79th Cong., 2nd Sess., Ch. 727, 60 Stat., pp. 779, 780; 10 U.S.C. § 5150 et seq. (1946) (www.loc.gov/law/help/statutes-at-large/79th-congress.php).
45. 45. V. Bush, op. cit.
46. 46. H. Varmus, “Squeeze on Science,” Washington Post, A33, October 4, 2000 (see www.aip.org/fyi/2000/harold-varmus-support-nsf-and-doe-office-science).
47. 47. J.L. Penick, Jr. et al., op. cit., pp. 169–171.
48. 48. Public Law 692, 81st Cong., 2nd Sess., Ch. 714, 64 Stat., pp. 443–447; 42 U.S.C. § 203 et seq. (1950) (www.loc.gov/law/help/statutes-at-large/81st-congress.php).
49. 49. “About NIH—Who We Are,” National Institutes of Health, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (www.nih.gov/about-nih/who-we-are).
50. 50. See R. Rhodes, The Making of the Atomic Bomb (Simon and Schuster, New York, 1986).
51. 51. Oppenheimer actually split his time between the University of California–Berkeley and the Californian Institute of Technology in Pasadena. But he was more at ease at Berkeley because James Millikan, Caltech’s top physicist despised him, possibly because of his Jewish heritage. (N.P. Davis, op. cit., p. 52).
52. 52. N.P. Davis, op. cit., pp. 12-14.
53. 53. For a fascinating description of the German nuclear effort during World War II, see D. Irving, The German Atomic Bomb: The History of Nuclear Research in Nazi Germany (Simon and Schuster, New York, 1968).
54. 54. R. Rhodes, Dark Sun: The Making of the Hydrogen Bomb (Simon and Schuster, New York, 1995).
55. 55. M. Telson, former chief financial officer of the Department of Energy, private communication.
56. 56. The following list comprises the 17 national laboratories on the federal roster as of January 2018 with dates reflecting when they started their research activities rather than when they received their official national laboratory status: National Energy Technology Laboratory [Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania (1910); Morgantown, West Virginia (1946); Sugar Land, Texas (2000); Fairbanks, Alaska (2001); Albany, Oregon (2005)]; Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (1931); Los Alamos National Laboratory (1943); Oak Ridge National Laboratory (1943); Argonne National Laboratory (1946); Ames Laboratory (1947); Brookhaven National Laboratory (1947); Sandia National Laboratory (1948); Idaho National Laboratory (1949); Princeton Plasma Physics Laboratory (1951); Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (1952); Savannah River National Laboratory (1952); SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory (1962); Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (1965); Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory (1967); National Renewable Energy Laboratory (1977); Thomas Jefferson National Accelerator Facility (1984).
57. 57. “The Galvin Report,” Secretary of Energy Advisory Board Task Force on Alternative Futures for the Department of Energy National Laboratories, R. Galvin, chair, February 1995. scipp.ucsc.edu/~haber/UC_CORP/galvin.htm.
58. 58. “The CRENEL Report,” Commission to Review the Effectiveness of the National Laboratories, Final Report, T.J. Glauthier and J.L. Cohon, co-chairs, October 28, 2015. energy.gov/labcommission/downloads/final-report-commission-review-effectiveness-national-energy-laboratories.
59. 59. “The Cox Report,” Report of the Select Committee on U.S. National Security and Military/Commercial Concerns with the People’s Republic of China (U.S. House of Representatives, 105th Cong., 2nd Sess., Report 105–851, January 3, 1999).
60. 60. See, for example, E. Klein, “The Hunting of Wen Ho Lee,” Vanity Fair, December 2000, pp. 142 ff.

Chapter 7: Growing pains 1952–1974

1. 1. J. Wooley and G. Peters, The American Presidency Project, “Presidential Job Approval, F. Roosevelt (1941)—Trump,” (The University of California, Santa Barbara). www.presidency.ucsb.edu/data/popularity.php?pres=33.
2. 2. D. McCullough, op. cit., pp. 892,893.
3. 3. Ibid., pp. 712, 844.
4. 4. Ibid., p. 887.
5. 5. David Eisenhower, private communication.
6. 6. D. McCullough, op. cit., pp. 839–855.
7. 7. Brownell had visited Eisenhower at NATO Headquarters in Paris earlier in the year, but was unable to secure his commitment to run [H. Brownell, Advising Ike: The Memoirs of Attorney Herbert Brownell (University Press of Kansas, Lawrence, Kan., 1993), pp. 94–97]. The follow-up phone call sealed the deal [J.E. Smith, “Ike Reconsidered: Conference Public Program,” Roosevelt House Public Policy Institute at Hunter College, March 12, 2013, Video Transcript: www.youtube.com/watch?v=NJDu35FfcrQ (1:21:45–1:22:50)].
8. 8. To observe the fervor with which the 1952 Republican Convention greeted MacArthur, watch www.c-span.org/video/?3985-1/gen-douglas-macarthur-keynote-address.
9. 9. D. McCullough, op. cit., pp. 903, 904.
10. 10. J. Wooley and G. Peters, op. cit., “Dwight D. Eisenhower, XXXIV President of the United States: 1953-1961, Address Accepting the Presidential Nomination at the Republican National Convention in Chicago, July 11, 1952”. www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=75626.
11. 11. “NSF Appropriations and Requests By Account: FY 1951–FY 2017” (www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=1&ved=0ahUKEwjvw9T__vPYAhXB2VMKHeYbCmwQFggpMAA&url=https%3A%2F%2Fdellweb.bfa.nsf.gov%2FNSFRqstAppropHist%2FNSFRequestsandAppropriationsHistory.pdf&usg=AOvVaw3nwQklKa_JG7ryxihwQttm).
12. 12. The New York Times, October 4, 1957, p. 1 (www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/big/1004.html).
13. 13. 72 Stat. 426-2, Public Law 85-568, July 29, 1958, H.R. 12575, pp. 426-438; 42 U.S.C. § 2451 et seq. (1958) (www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/STATUTE-72/pdf/STATUTE-72-Pg426-2.pdf).
14. 14. See www.darpa.mil for an overview of DARPA’s mission, history and activities.
15. 15. 72 Stat. 1580, Public Law 85-684, September 2, 1958, H.R. 13247, pp. 1580-1605; 20 U.S.C. § 401 et seq. (1958) (www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/STATUTE-72/pdf/STATUTE-72-Pg1580.pdf).
16. 16. See, for example, “The National Science Board: A History in Highlights 1950-2000, The 1970s, Supporting the Director as Science Advisor,” (U.S. National Science Foundation, 2000). www.nsf.gov/nsb/documents/2000/nsb00215/nsb50/1970/supp_dir.html – and J.S. Rigden, Rabi, Scientist and Citizen (Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass., 2000), p. 251.
17. 17. D.D. Eisenhower, At Ease: Stories I Tell to Friends (Doubleday, New York, 1967), pp. 157-168.
18. 18. 70 Stat. 374, Public Law 84-627, June 29, 1956, H.R. 10660, pp. 374-387; 23 U.S.C. § 48 et seq. (1956) (www.gpo.gov/fdsys/granule/STATUTE-70/STATUTE-70-Pg374/content-detail.html).
19. 19. For a brief history of the Highway Trust Fund, see “Funding Federal-aid Highways,” U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration, Office of Policy and Governmental Affairs, Publication No. FHWA-PL-17-011, January 2017. www.fhwa.dot.gov/policy/olsp/fundingfederalaid/07.cfm.
20. 20. See, for example, J. Fox “The Great Paving: How the Interstate Highway System Helped Create the Modern Economy—and Reshaped the FORTUNE 500,” Fortune Magazine, January 26, 2004 (archive.fortune.com/magazines/fortune/fortune_archive/2004/01/26/358835/index.htm).
21. 21. J. Wooley and G. Peters, op. cit., “1-Inaugural Address, January 20, 1953”. www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=9600.
22. 22. J. Wooley and G. Peters, op. cit., “421-Farewell Radio and Television Address to the American People, January 17, 1961”. www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=12086.
23. 23. N.P. Davis, op. cit.
24. 24. A. Pais with supplemental material by R. Crease, J. Robert Oppenheimer: A Life (Oxford University Press, New York, 2006).
25. 25. U.S. Atomic Energy Commission, In the Matter of J. Robert Oppenheimer: Transcript of Hearing Before Personnel Security Board and Texts of Principal Documents and Letters (MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass., 1954), pp. 837, 838.
26. 26. J. Wooley and G. Peters, op. cit., “Lyndon B. Johnson, XXXVI President of the United States: 1963-1969, 19-Remarks Upon Presenting the Fermi Award to Dr. J. Robert Oppenheimer, December 2, 1963”. www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=26076.
27. 27. J. Wooley and G. Peters, op. cit., “John. F. Kennedy, XXXV President of the United States: 1960-1963, 1-Innaugural Address, January 20, 1960”. www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=8032.
28. 28. J.M. Logsdon, “John F. Kennedy and NASA,” NASA 50th Magazine (NASA, May 25, 2015). www.nasa.gov/feature/john-f-kennedy-and-nasa.
29. 29. W.S. Bainbridge, ed., Leadership in Science and Technology: A Reference Handbook, Vol. 1 (Sage Publications, Los Angeles, 2012), p. 451.
30. 30. J. Wooley and G. Peters, op. cit. “430-Address, at the Anniversary Convocation of the National Academy of Sciences, October 22, 1963”. www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=9488.
31. 31. Universal Coordinated Time, or UTC, is based on Greenwich Mean Time referenced to extraordinarily accurate atomic clocks.
32. 32. The author, who was opposed to the Vietnam War, was nonetheless the object of one such experience in New Haven, Conn. in 1970, simply because he was a physicist on the Yale University faculty.
33. 33. J. Markon revisited the 1970 bombing of the University of Wisconsin mathematics building in “After 40 Years, Search for University of Washington Suspect Heats Up Again,” Washington Post, September 21, 2010 (www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2010/09/21/AR2010092106588.html).
34. 34. Z. Wang, In Sputnik’s Shadow: The President’s Science Advisory Committee and Cold War America (Rutgers University Press, New Brunswick, New Jersey, 2008), p. 291.
35. 35. 83 Stat. 204, Public Law 91-121, November 19, 1969, S. 2546, Sec. 203, p. 206. www.gpo.gov/fdsys/search/pagedetails.action?collectionCode=STATUTE&browsePath=1969%2FPUBLICLAW&granuleId=STATUTE-83-Pg204&packageId=STATUTE-83&fromBrowse=true.
36. 36. As a testament to Fulbright’s enduring commitment to science, the U.S. State Department regards its International Fulbright Science and Technology Award as one of its most prestigious honors.
37. 37. 84 Stat. 1676, Public Law 91-604, December 31, 1970, H.R. 17255, pp. 1676-171; 42 U.S.C. § 7401 et seq. (1970). www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/STATUTE-84/pdf/STATUTE-84-Pg1676.pdf.
38. 38. T. Friedman, The World Is Flat: A Brief History of the Twenty-first Century (Farrar, Strauss and Giroux, New York, 2005).
39. 39. M. Greenstone, “The Impacts of Environmental Regulations on Industrial Activity: Evidence from the 1970 and 1977 Clean Air Act Amendments and the Census of Manufacturers,” Working Paper 8484 (National Bureau of Economic Research, Cambridge, Mass, 2001). www.nber.org/papers/w8484.
40. 40. 86 Stat. 816, Public Law 92-500, October 18, 1972, S. 2770, pp. 816–903; 33 U.S.C. § 1251 et seq. (1972) (www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/STATUTE-86/pdf/STATUTE-86-Pg816.pdf).
41. 41. Time, Friday, August 1, 1969.
42. 42. For a retrospective of the Clean Water Act, see A. Snider, “Clean Water Act: Vetoes by Eisenhower Presaged Today’s partisan Divide,” E&E News—Greenwire, Thursday, October 18, 2012. www.eenews.net/stories/1059971457.
43. 43. Nixon might have been in favor of controlling water pollution, but he didn’t see why it had to be so expensive. His opposition to the Clean Water Act’s $24-billion price tag trumped any concern he harbored about the problem.
44. 44. Air resistance, or “drag,” increases rapidly with speed, causing vehicles to burn more fuel per mile traveled.
45. 45. A. Buck, “A History of the Energy Research and Development Administration,” (U.S. Department of Energy: Office of Management, Office of the Executive Secretariat, Office of History and Heritage Resources, March 1982).
46. 46. 88 Stat. 1233, Public Law 93-438, October 11, 1974, H.R. 11510, pp. 1233-1254; 42 U.S.C. § 5801 et seq. (1974) (www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/STATUTE-88/pdf/STATUTE-88-Pg1233.pdf).
47. 47. 89 Stat. 871, Public Law 94-163, December 22, 1975, S. 622, pp. 871-969; 42 U.S.C. § 6201 et seq. (1975) (www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/STATUTE-89/pdf/STATUTE-89-Pg871.pdf).
48. 48. B. Richter et al., “How America Can Look Within to Achieve Energy Security and Reduce Global Warming,” Rev. Mod. Phys. 80, S1 (2008), pp. 28-51. doi.org/10.1103/RevModPhys.80.S1.
49. 49. 85 Stat. 778, Public Law 92-218, December 23, 1971, S. 1828, pp. 778–786; 15 U.S.C. § 1022 et seq. (1971) (www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/STATUTE-85/pdf/STATUTE-85-Pg778.pdf).
50. 50. See “National Cancer Act of 1971,” About NCI, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health. www.cancer.gov/about-nci/legislative/history/national-cancer-act-1971#bill.
51. 51. F. Luntz, Words That Work: It’s Not What You Say, It’s What People Hear (Hyperion, New York, 2007).
52. 52. For a concise summary, see W. Burr, ed., “Missile Defense Thirty Years Ago: Déjà Vu All Over Again?” National Archive Electronic Briefing Book No. 36 (National Security Archive, George Washington University, December 18, 2000). nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB36/index.html.
53. 53. Z. Wang, op. cit., pp. 297–305.
54. 54. W.S. Bainbridge, op. cit., p. 460.
55. 55. For details about the Watergate scandal, see B. Woodward and C. Bernstein, All the President’s Men (Simon and Schuster, New York, 1974) and its follow-up, The Final Days (Simon and Schuster, New York, 1976).
56. 56. General Electric moved its headquarters from Fairfield, Conn. to Boston, Mass. in 2017, and Fujifilm purchased a controlling share of Xerox in 2018.
57. 57. J. Sadowski, “Office of Technology Assessment: History, Implementation, and Participatory Critique,” Technology in Society 42, 9–20 (2015).
58. 58. 86 Stat. 797, Public Law 92-484, October 13, 1972, H.R. 10243, pp. 797-803; 41 U.S.C. § 5 et. seq. (1972) (www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/STATUTE-86/pdf/STATUTE-86-Pg797.pdf).
59. 59. For historical notes and a compendium of OTA reports, see U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, The OTA Legacy: 1972–1995 (Washington, DC: April 1996). www.princeton.edu/~ota/.
60. 60. J. Sadowski, op. cit., p. 16.
61. 61. A.B. Carter, “Directed Energy Missile Defense in Space—A Background Paper” (Washington, D. C.: U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, OTA-BP-ISC-26, April 1984), p. 81.

Chapter 8: A fresh start 1974–1992

1. 1. G.R. Ford, private communication.
2. 2. N.A. Rockefeller, private communication.
3. 3. 90 Stat. 459, Public Law 94-282, May 11, 1976, H.R. 10230, pp. 459-473; 42 U.S.C. § 6601 et seq. (1976) (www.gpo.gov’fdsys/pkg/STATUTE-90/pdf/STATUTE-90-Pg.459.pdf).
4. 4. See J.F. Sargent Jr. and D.A Shea, “Office of Science and Technology Policy (OSTP): History and Overview,” CRS Report R43935 (Congressional Research Service, August 17, 2017). fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/R43935.pdf.
5. 5. J. Wooley and G. Peters, op. cit., “Jimmy Carter, XXXIX President of the United States: 1977–1981, Executive Order 12039–Science and Technology Policy Functions, February 24, 1978”. www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=30416.
6. 6. J. Wooley and G. Peters, op cit. “George Bush, XLI President of the United States: 1989-1993, Executive Order 12700–President’s Council of Advisors on Science and Technology, January 19, 1990”. www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=23546.
7. 7. For a report on the first PCAST meeting, see I. Goodwin, Physics Today, 43 (3), pp. 49–50 (1990). physicstoday.scitation.org/doi/10.1063/1.2810483.
8. 8. Donald Trump re-chartered PSAC but had not filled any of its seats as of March 2018, more than fifteen months after he took office.
9. 9. Donald Trump indicated he would revamp the operation of NSTC, but at the time of this book’s writing the White House had not released any plans.
10. 10. “Home > Energy Explained > Nonrenewable Resources > Oil and Petroleum Products > Imports and Exports,” U.S Energy Information Administration (EIA). www.eia.gov/energyexplained/index.cfm?page=oil_imports.
11. 11. 91 Stat. 565, Public Law 95-91, August 4, 1977, S. 826, pp. 565–613; 42 U.S.C. § 17101 et seq. (1977) (www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/STATUTE-91/pdf/STATUTE-91-Pg565.pdf).
12. 12. C. Marquis, “The 43rd President: Man in the News; Edmund Spencer Abraham,” The New York Times, January 3, 2001. www.nytimes.com/2001/01/03/us/the-43rd-president-man-in-the-news-edmund-spencer-abraham.html.
13. 13. C, Davenport and D.E. Sanger, “’Learning Curve’ as Rick Perry Pursues a Job He Initially Misunderstood,” The New York Times, January 18, 2017. www.nytimes.com/2017/01/18/us/politics/rick-perry-energy-secretary-donald-trump.html?_r=0.
14. 14. “Department of Homeland Security: Science and Technology”. www.dhs.gov/science-and-technology/about-st.
15. 15. Even forty years later, I recall it vividly. A C-SPAN video is available at www.c-span.org/video/?153913-1/president-carters-fireside-chat-energy.
16. 16. J. Wooley and G. Peters, op. cit., “Report to the American People—Remarks from the White House Library, February 2, 1977”. www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=7455&st=&st1=.
17. 17. J.E. Carter, private communication.
18. 18. J. Wooley and G. Peters, op. cit., “Energy Address to the Nation, April 5, 1979. http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=32159.
19. 19. W. Sweet and S. Stencel, “Public Confidence and Energy,” Editorial Research Reports 1979, Vol. I (CQ Press, Washington, DC). library.cqpress.com/cqresearcher/document.php?id=cqresrre1979052500.
20. 20. Stories have long circulated—See N.A. Lewis, “New Reports Say 1980 Reagan Campaign Tried to Delay Hostage Release,” The New York Times, April 15, 1991 (www.nytimes.com/1991/04/15/world/new-reports-say-1980-reagan-campaign-tried-to-delay-hostage-release.html). That Republican operatives might have urged Iran to delay the hostage’s release until after the 1980 election in order to help Ronald Reagan, but no definitive proof has been found.
21. 21. Hagen Research carried out the survey for ScienceCounts and Research!America.
22. 22. J. Wooley and G. Peters, op. cit., “Ronald Reagan XL President of the United States: 1981-1989, Radio Address to the Nation on the Federal Role in Scientific Research, April 2, 1988”. www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=35637.
23. 23. Ibid., “Remarks at the Annual Convention of the National Association of Evangelicals in Orlando Florida, March 8, 1983”. www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=41023&st=evangelicals&st1=http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=41023&st=evangelicals&st1=.
24. 24. J. Gerstenzang, “Weinberger Sees End of “Mutual Suicide Pact,” Los Angeles Times, October 10, 1985 (articles.latimes.com/1985-10-10/news/mn-15630_1_defense-strategy.
25. 25. J. Wooley and G. Peters, op cit., “Address to the Nation on Defense and National Security, March 23, 1983”. www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=41093&st=strategic&st1=defense.
26. 26. D Kimball and K. Reif, “The Anti-Ballistic Missile (ABM) Treaty as a Glance” (Arms Control Association, Fact Sheets & Briefs, August 2012) www.armscontrol.org/factsheets/abmtreaty.
27. 27. N. Bloembergen, C.K.N. Patel et al., “Report to the American Physical Society of the Study Group on Science and Technology of Directed Energy Weapons,” Rev. Mod. Phys. 59, S1 (July 1987). doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.59.S1.
28. 28. See “A Timeline of HIV and AIDS” (www.hiv.gov/hiv-basics/overview/history/hiv-and-aids-timeline).
29. 29. J. Wooley and G. Peters, op cit., “Remarks at the American Foundation for AIDS Research Awards Dinner, May 31, 1987”. www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=34348.
30. 30. For a comprehensive look at White House science and technology policy during the presidency of George H.W. Bush, see D.A. Bromley, The President’s Scientists: Reminiscences of a White House Science Advisor (Yale University Press, New Haven, 1994).
31. 31. M. Riordan, L. Hoddeson and A.W. Kolb, Tunnel Visions: The Rise and Fall of the Superconducting Super Collider, The University of Chicago Press (Chicago, 2015), pp 184–189.
32. 32. A. McDaniel, “25 Years Ago Today, George H.W. Bush Vomited on the Prime Minister of Japan,” Newsweek, January 8, 2017 (http://www.newsweek.com/25-years-ago-today-george-h-w-bush-vomited-prime-minister-japan-538581).
33. 33. M. Riordan et al., op. cit., p. 228.
34. 34. Ibid., p. 232.
35. 35. Ibid., p. 229.
36. 36. Ibid., p. 233.
37. 37. Ibid., p. 236.
38. 38. George H.W. Bush’s term began on January 20, 1989 and ended on January 20, 1993. D. Allan Bromley served as Bush’s Science Advisor and Director of the Office of Science and Technology Policy (OSTP) from his swearing-in on October 13, 1989 until Bush’s departure on January 20, 1993.

Chapter 9: Crossing new intersections 1992–2000

1. 1. R.M. Solow, “A Contribution to the Theory of Economic Growth,” Q. J. Econ. 70, 65 (1956).
2. 2. R.M. Solow, “Technical Change and the Aggregate Production Function,” Rev. Econ. Stat. 39, 312 (1957).
3. 3. R.M. Solow, “Investment and Technical Progress,” in Mathematical Methods in the Social Sciences, 1959, ed. by K.J. Arrow, S. Karlin, and P. Suppes (Stanford University Press, 1960), pp. 89-104.
4. 4. For highlights of Edwin Mansfield’s work, see A.M. Diamond Jr., “Edwin Mansfield’s Contributions to the Economics of Technology,” Research Policy 32, 1607 (2003).
5. 5. E. Mansfield, “Academic Research and Industrial Innovation,” Research Policy 20 (1), 1 (1991).
6. 6. D.A. Bromley, The President’s Scientists: Reminiscences of a White House Science Advisor (Yale University Press, New Haven, 1994), p. 221.
7. 7. E. Mansfield, “Academic Research and Industrial Innovation: A Further Note” Research Policy 21 (3), 295 (1992).
8. 8. Bromley cites only the 28 percent figure in his book, and during the twelve years we worked together prior to his death in 2005, he never mentioned that he was aware of the revision upward to 40 percent.
9. 9. E. Mansfield, “Basic Research and Productivity Increase in Manufacturing,” Amer. Econ. Rev. 70 (5), 863 (1980).
10. 10. Personal notes.
11. 11. His book, Earth in the Balance: Ecology and the Human Spirit (Houghton Mifflin, Boston, 1992) received the Robert F. Kennedy Center for Justice and Human Rights Award in 1993.
12. 12. M.J. Boskin and L.J. Lau, “Capital Formation and Economic Growth,” Technology and Economics (The National Academies Press, Washington, 1991), pp. 47-54.
13. 13. Ibid., p. 52 (www.nap.edu/read/1767/chapter/4#52).
14. 14. “Societies Call for 7% Funding Increase in Joint Statement on Scientific Research,” APS News 6 (4), April 1997 (www.aps.org/publications/apsnews/199704/statement.cfm).
15. 15. www.congress.gov/bill/105th-congress/senate-bill/124/text?q=%7B%22search%22%3A%5B%22S.+124+105th+Congress%22%5D%7D&r=3.
16. 16. www.congress.gov/bill/105th-congress/senate-bill/1305/text?q=%7B%22search%22%3A%5B%22S.+1305+105th%22%5D%7D&r=1.
17. 17. www.congress.gov/bill/105th-congress/senate-bill/2217/text?q=%7B%22search%22%3A%5B%22S.+2217%22%5D%7D&r=1.
18. 18. www.congress.gov/bill/106th-congress/senate-bill/296/text?q=%7B%22search%22%3A%5B%22S.+296%22%5D%7D&r=1.
19. 19. A.H. Dupree, Science in the Federal Government, The Johns Hopkins University Press (Baltimore, Md., 1986), pp. 215–231.
20. 20. Public Law 115-141, March 23, 2018, H.R. 1625 (www.congress.gov/bill/115th-congress/house-bill/1625/text).
21. 21. 88 Stat. 297, Public Law 93-344, July 12, 1974, H.R. 7130, 31 U.S.C. § 301 et. seq. (1974) (www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/STATUTE-88/pdf/STATUTE-88-Pg297.pdf).
22. 22. See, for example, M. Hourihan, “The Federal Budget Process 101,” American Association for the Advancement of Science. www.aaas.org/news/federal-budget-process-101 (AAAS, 15 July 2014).
23. 23. W. Churchill, “Speech, House of Commons, November 11, 1947,” in Winston S. Churchill: His Complete Speeches, 1897–1963 (In 8 Volumes), ed. by Robert Rhodes James, (Chelsea House Publishers & R.R. Bowker, Co., New York, 1974), Vol. 7, p. 7566.
24. 24. For accounts of the quest to sequence the human genome, see J. Shreeve, The Genome War: How Craig Venter Tried to Capture the Code of Life and Save the World (Alfred A. Knopf, New York, 2004) and K. Davies, Cracking the Genome: Inside the Race to Unlock Human DNA (Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, Md., 2001).
25. 25. 94 Stat. 96, Public Law 96-517, December 12, 1980, H.R. 6933, 35 U.S.C. § 200 et seq. (1980) (www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/STATUTE-94/pdf/STATUTE-94-Pg3015.pdf).
26. 26. L. Roberts, “Why Watson Quit as Project Head,” Science 256, 301–302 (17 April 1992).
27. 27. In his 1994 memoire (D.A. Bromley, op. cit.) he never once mentioned it.
28. 28. N.F. Lane, private communication.
29. 29. T. Friend, USA Today, March 13, 2000.
30. 30. J. Wooley and G. Peters, The American Presidency Project, “William J. Clinton, XLII President of the United States: 1993-2001, Remarks on Presenting the National Medals of Science and Technology, March 14, 2000”. www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=58246.
31. 31. N.F. Lane, private communication.
32. 32. finance.yahoo.com/quote/%5EIXIC/history?period1=951886800&period2=1083297600&interval=1d&filter=history&frequency=1d.
33. 33. J. Wooley and G. Peters, op. cit., “Remarks on the Completion of the First Survey of the Human Genome, June 26, 2000”. www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=58701&st=&st1=.
34. 34. Time, July 3, 2000. content.time.com/time/covers/0,16641,20000703,00.html.
35. 35. International Human Genome Sequencing Consortium, “Initial Sequencing and Analysis of the Human Genome,” Nature 409, 860 (2001). www.nature.com/articles/35057062.
36. 36. J. Craig Venter et al., “The Sequence of the Human Genome,” Science 291, 1304 (2001). science.sciencemag.org/content/291/5507/1304.
37. 37. A. Liptak, “Justices, 9-0, Bar Patenting Human Genes,” The New York Times, June 13, 2013. www.nytimes.com/2013/06/14/us/supreme-court-rules-human-genes-may-not-be-patented.html; Association for Molecular Pathology v. Myriad Genetics, Inc., No. 12-398 [569 U.S. 576 (2013)].
38. 38. A. Jackson, “Nature’s 10 People Who Mattered in 2013,” Of Schemes and Memes, Community Blog, Nature. blogs.nature.com/ofschemesandmemes/2013/12/19/natures-10-people-who-mattered-in-2013.
39. 39. C. Venter and D. Cohen, National Perspectives Quarterly, 21, 73–77 (2004).
40. 40. H. Varmus, “Squeeze on Science,” The Washington Post, p. A33 (October 4, 2000).
41. 41. J. Wooley and G. Peters, op. cit., “Remarks at the California Institute of Technology in Pasadena, California, January 21, 2000”. www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=58609.
42. 42. Beginning with his arrival in 1921, Einstein spent virtually all of his American career at the Institute for Advanced Study on the campus of Princeton University. It is often overlooked that he gave his first public address that year in the Great Hall of the City College of New York (CCNY), the “Harvard of the Proletariat,” as the institution was and is still known.
43. 43. 114 Stat. 3088, Public Law 106-580, December 29, 2000, H.R. 1795, 42 U.S.C. § 201 et seq. (2000) (www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/PLAW-106publ580/html/PLAW-106publ580.htm).
44. 44. Senators Connie Mack, a Republican from Florida, and Tom Harkin, a Democrat from Iowa, two of the principal supporters.
45. 45. Ken Dill, who was a then a distinguished member of the faculty at the University of California, San Francisco, was leading the NIBIB effort.
46. 46. Arthur Bienenstock, a renowned physicist on leave from Stanford University, was the OSTP Associate Director for Science at the time. He successfully shepherded the proposal through the Clinton Administration.
47. 47. J. Wooley and G. Peters, The American Presidency Project, “Barack Obama XLIV President of the United States: 2009-2017, Remarks on Science and Technology, April 2, 2013”. www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=103411.
48. 48. Polling and focus groups conducted in 2016 by Edge Research, an Arlington, Va. survey firm, and studies conducted in 2017 by Civilian, a San Diego, Calif. marketing and advertising firm, both on behalf of ScienceCounts, were very revelatory. Most people have a good feeling about science in the abstract, but as a practical matter, apart from medicine, they do not see very much of a connection between science and their daily lives. They regard innovations, such as the smart phone or tablet, as inventions created in someone’s garage, rather than the adaptation of many scientific discoveries.
49. 49. See “The Nobel Prize in Physics 1976: Burton Richter, Samuel C.C. Ting,” Press Release, The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, 18 October 1976. www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1976/press.html.
50. 50. See “The Nobel Prize in Physics 1995: Martin L. Perl and Frederick Reines,” Press Release, The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, 11 October 1995. www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1995/press.html.
51. 51. The National Synchrotron Light Source at Brookhaven National Laboratory in Upton, New York was commissioned in 1983.
52. 52. The Advanced Light Source (ALS) at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory in Berkeley, Calif. was commissioned in 1993, and the Advanced Photon Source (APS) at Argonne National Laboratory in DuPage County, Ill. was commissioned in 1994.
53. 53. K. Hodgson, “SSRL to Upgrade SPEAR Storage Ring,” Synchrotron Rad. News 12, 41 (1999).
54. 54. The first step in the passage of a bill is a committee or subcommittee draft of legislative language. The process is called “marking up.”
55. 55. “Stove-piping” is sometimes called “siloing.” Both terms convey the organization of activities or responsibilities into separate structures that have poor channels of communication among them.
56. 56. Vernon J. Ehlers, a Michigan Republican was the first research physicist elected to Congress. He received his doctoral degree from the University of California-Berkeley and eventually became chairman of the Physics Department at Calvin College in Grand Rapids, Michigan. He served in the Michigan state legislature from 1983 until 1993, when he won a special election to the House of Representatives. In 1999, he was joined by Rush Holt Jr., a Democrat from New Jersey, who had received his Ph.D. from New York University and taught physics and public policy at Swarthmore College for eight years, prior to a two-year stint at the State Department and an eight-year term as assistant director of the Princeton Plasma Physics Laboratory. (Holt’s father, Rush Holt, Sr., a Democrat who turned against the Coal Miner’s Union, represented West Virginia in the United States Senate for one term, from 1935 until 1941.) In 2008, Bill Foster, an Illinois Democrat won a special election to replace former House Speaker Dennis Hastert, who had resigned after Democrats regained control of the House of Representatives in 2007. Foster, who had received his Ph.D. from Harvard and spent 22 years as a high-energy physicist at Fermi National Laboratory, rounded out what was called the House “Physics Caucus.” He lost his bid for reelection in 2010, but won the next time around in 2012. Ehlers retired in 2011 and Holt departed in 2015, leaving Foster as the only physicist in the House or Senate.
57. 57. John Olver, a Democrat, represented the western part of Massachusetts from 1991 until 2012. He had received his Ph.D. from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) and taught chemistry at the University of Massachusetts Amherst before running for the House of Representatives. He retired after his district was combined with an adjacent one, following the 2010 census, which caused Massachusetts to lose a House seat.
58. 58. Jerry McNerney, a California Democrat, won election to the House of Representatives in 2006. He had received his Ph.D. in mathematics from the University of New Mexico before working on national security issues at Sandia National Laboratory and later as an energy consultant specializing in wind power.
59. 59. Weston Vivian, a Michigan Democrat served only one term in the House of Representatives, from 1965 to 1967. He had received a Master’s Degree from MIT and a Ph.D. in electrical engineering from the University of Michigan before embarking on a consulting career.
60. 60. Harrison Schmitt, a Republican and native of New Mexico, served one term in the United States Senate. He had received a Ph.D. in geology from Harvard University before joining NASA in 1965 as a member of the first cadre of scientist-astronauts. He flew on the 17th and last Apollo Mission, landing on the lunar surface in 1972. He ran successfully for the Senate from his home state in 1976 but losing to Jeff Bingaman in 1982.
61. 61. See https://www.aaas.org/program/science-technology-policy-fellowships.

Chapter 10: Years of anxiety 2001–2008

1. 1. See www.compete.org/about/about-council.
2. 2. L. Santos, “Review of Findings of the President’s Commission on Industrial Competitiveness: Memo on March 29, 1985 Committee Hearing on the Industrial Competitiveness Report,” United States Senate Committee on Finance. www.finance.senate.gov/imo/media/doc/HRG99-75.pdf.
3. 3. In 2013, The Task Force on American Innovation, “a non-partisan alliance of leading American companies and business associations, research university associations, and scientific societies” (www.innovationtaskforce.org/) produced a sequel to its 2005 study. The updated report, American Exceptionalism, American Decline? Research, the Knowledge Economy and the 21st Century Challenge, can be found at www.innovationtaskforce.org/task-force-on-american-innovation-american-exceptionalism-american-decline/.
4. 4. Rising Above the Gathering Storm: Energizing and Employing America for a Brighter Economic Future (The National Academies Press, Washington, D.C., 2005), pp. vii–ix.
5. 5. J. Bingaman, R.M. Simon and A.L. Rosenberg, “Needed: A Revitalized National S&T Policy,” Issues in Science and Technology 20 (3), Spring 2004 (issues.org/20-3/p_bingaman/).
6. 6. J. Bingaman, “Maintaining America’s Competitive Edge,” APS News 14 (6), June 2005 (www.aps.org/publications/apsnews/200506/backpage.cfm).
7. 7. Rising Above the Gathering Storm: Energizing and Employing America for a Brighter Economic Future, op. cit., pp. ES-1–ES-10.
8. 8. N. Augustine, private communication.
9. 9. The National Summit on Competitiveness: Investing in U.S. Innovation (A National Gathering of Executives Concerned About America’s Future Competitiveness, Washington, D.C., December 6, 2005, unpublished).
10. 10. R. Pear, “Physicist Said to Be Top Choice For Science Adviser to President,” The New York Times, June 25, 2001 (www.nytimes.com/2001/06/25/us/physicist-said-to-be-top-choice-for-science-adviser-to-president.html).
11. 11. T.J. Gay and A.F. Starace, “DAMOP 2005,” in Division of Atomic, Molecular and Optical Physics Newsletter, March 2005, L. Cocke, editor (www.aps.org/units/damop/newsletters/upload/march05.pdf).
12. 12. To appreciate the complexity of the issue, see for example, D.B. Audretsch et al., “The Economics of Science and Technology,” J. Tech Transfer 27, 155 (2002). maryannfeldman.web.unc.edu/files/2011/11/Economics-of-Sci-and-Tech_2002.pdf.
13. 13. T. Baer and F. Schlachter, “Lasers in Science and Industry: A Report to OSTP on the Contribution of Lasers to American Jobs and the American Economy” (www.laserfest.org/lasers/baer-schlachter.pdf).
14. 14. National Research Council, “Impact of Photonics on the National Economy," Optics and Photonics: Essential Technologies for Our Nation, pp. 20–62 (The National Academies Press, Washington, D.C., 2013).
15. 15. Tim Berners Lee, a computer scientist working at CERN, the European Center for Nuclear Physics in Geneva, Switzerland, was tasked with developing a communications tool with a graphics interface that would allow more than 10,000 high-energy physicists and engineers around the world to exchange information and data and to coordinate their work on the Large Hadron Collider, a multi-national project costing almost $10 billion. The hypertext transfer protocol, with familiar the letters, http, is the foundation of data communication on the Web. The precursors to the popular Web browser, Mozilla-Firefox, were Netscape and its progenitor, Mosaic, which was developed with federal funds at the National Center for Supercomputing Applications at the University of Illinois Urbana-Champagne.
16. 16. See “Where the Future Becomes Now,” Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency, About Us, History and Timeline. www.darpa.mil/about-us/darpa-history-and-timeline?PP=0.
17. 17. See www.darpa.mil/attachments/DARPA_Directors_Sheet-web.pdf.
18. 18. M. Boroush, “National Patterns of R&D Resources: 2014–15 Data Update—Detailed Statistical Tables, NSF 17-311, March 2017 (National Center for Science and Engineering Statistics, National Science Foundation, Alexandria, Va., 2017). https://www.nsf.gov/statistics/2017/nsf17311/pdf/nsf17311.pdf.
19. 19. By 2015, after a small uptick during the early Obama years, it had fallen still further to 0.63 percent. See M. Boroush, op. cit.
20. 20. J. Wooley and G. Peters, op. cit., “George W. Bush XLII President of the United States: 2001–2009, Address Before a Joint Session of Congress on the State of the Union, January 31, 2006”. www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=65090.
21. 21. Domestic Policy Council and Office of Science and Technology Policy, “American Competitiveness Initiative: Leading the World in Innovation,” (georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/stateoftheunion/2006/aci/aci06-booklet.pdf).
22. 22. K.H. Fealing, J.L. Lane, J.H. Marburger III and S.S. Shipp, The Science of Science Policy: A Handbook (Stanford University Press, Stanford, Calif. 2011)
23. 23. A on-line video of her speech can be found at www.iop.harvard.edu/forum/innovation-agenda-commitment-competitiveness.
24. 24. “The Innovation Agenda: A Commitment to Competitiveness To Keep America #1” was developed by the House Democrats in late 2005 and was the basis for the party’s science and technology agenda in 2007 following the Democratic takeover of both the House and Senate in the 2006 election. It is unpublished but is available at https://www.democraticleader.gov/wp-content/uploads/2016/02/Innovation-Agenda-110th-Congress.pdf. The following were some of its key agenda items: To create “A New Generation of Innovators—Educate 100,000 new scientists, engineers and mathematicians in the next four years… Place a highly qualified teacher in every math and science K-12 classroom… Create a special visa for the best and brightest international doctoral and post-doctoral scholars in science, technology, engineering and mathematics. Make college tuition tax deductible for students studying math, science, technology and engineering,” doubling “funding for the National Science Foundation, basic research in the physical sciences across all agencies and collaborative research partnerships;” creating “regional Centers of Excellence for basic research;” and permanently extending a “globally competitive R&D [research and development] tax credit.” To achieve “A Sustained Commitment to Research and Development—Double overall funding for the National Science Foundation, basic research in the physical sciences across all agencies…; restore the basic, long-term research agenda at the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) to conduct long-range, high-risk, and high-reward research. Create regional Centers of Excellence for basic research that will attract the best minds and top researchers to develop far-reaching technological innovations and new industries… Modernize and permanently extend a globally competitive R&D tax credit to increase domestic investment, create more U.S. jobs, and allow companies to pursue long-term projects with the certainty the credit will not expire.” To “Bridge the Digital Divide—Implement a national broadband policy that doubles federal funding to promote broadband for all Americans, especially in rural and underserved communities; create new avenues of Internet access including wireless broadband technologies… Ensure the continued growth of Internet-based services and provide a stable regulatory framework… Enact a broadband tax credit for telecommunications companies…” To achieve “Energy Independence in 10 Years—Substantially reduce the use of petroleum based fuels by rapidly expanding production and distribution of synthetic and bio-based fuels…and by deploying new engine technologies for fuel-flexible, hybrid, plug-in hybrid and biodiesel vehicles. Create a new DARPA-like initiative within the Department of Energy…to develop high-risk, high-reward technologies and build markets for the next generation of revolutionary technologies…” To create “A Competitive Small Business Environment for Innovation—Bridge the ‘valley of death’ that destroys innovative ideas before they become marketable products due to lack of financing and technical support… Reward risk taking and entrepreneurship… Protect the intellectual property of American innovators…” The House Democrats updated their vision with “Innovation 2.0 in 2016 (htherivardreport.com/castro-pelosi-promote-innovation-agenda-to-keep-america-1/).
25. 25. “Science the Endless Frontier,” A Report to the President by Vannevar Bush, Director of the Office of Scientific Research and Development, July, 1945, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. (www.nsf.gov/od/lpa/nsf50/vbush1945.htm).
26. 26. V. Ehlers, Unlocking Our Future: Toward a New National Science Policy, Committee on Science, U.S. House of Representatives, One Hundred Fifth Congress (Committee Print 105-B, September 1998). www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/GPO-CPRT-105hprt105-b/pdf/GPO-CPRT-105hprt105-b.pdf.
27. 27. V.J. Ehlers, private communication.
28. 28. 121 Stat. 574, Public Law 110-69, August 9, 2007, H.R. 2272, 20 U.S.C. § 9801 note (2007) (www.congress.gov/110/plaws/publ69/PLAW-110publ69.pdf).
29. 29. See www.congress.gov/bill/110th-congress/senate-bill/761/cosponsors.
30. 30. See www.congress.gov/bill/110th-congress/house-bill/2272/cosponsors.
31. 31. The principal agencies were the Department of Energy’s Office of Science, NASA, the National Institute of Standards and Technology and the National Science Foundation.

Chapter 11: Recovery and reinvention 2009–2016

1. 1. G. Langer, “Poll: Bush Approval Rating 92 Percent,” ABC, October 10, 2001 (abcnews.go.com/Politics/story?id=120971&page=1).
2. 2. See www.realclearpolitics.com/epolls/other/president_bush_job_approval-904.html.
3. 3. In some cases, Administration appointees told us they were under orders not to cooperate with any Obama initiatives.
4. 4. See, for example, www.aaas.org/page/historical-trends-federal-rd.
5. 5. 123 Stat. 115, Public Law 111-5, February 17, 2009, H.R. 1, 26 U.S.C. § 1 note (2009) (www.congress.gov/111/plaws/publ5/PLAW-111publ5.pdf).
6. 6. For a record of congressional actions, see www.congress.gov/bill/111th-congress/house-bill/1/actions.
7. 7. In 2009, according to Office of Management and Budget data, exclusive of the science stimulus boost, total federal R&D spending was $145.6 billion. Of that, defense accounted for $85.3 billion and non-defense, $60.3 billion. The vast majority of defense R&D spending ($67.5 billion) was housed in the development accounts of the Department of Defense (DOD). The research accounts of DOD received $14.0 billion, and the Department of energy’s (DOE) nuclear weapons programs received $3.83 billion. Non-defense R&D spending was split among a many players: Agriculture ($2.44 billion), Education ($312 million), DOE ($6.48 billion), Environmental Protection ($563 million), Homeland Security ($1.10 billion), Interior ($702 million), Justice ($94 million), International Assistance ($152 million) NASA ($8.79 billion), National Institute of Standards and Technology ($553 million), National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration ($785 million), National Science Foundation ($4.77 billion), NIH ($29.8 billion), Nuclear Regulatory Commission (($101 million), Smithsonian ($216 million), State ($103 million), Transportation ($925 million), Veterans Affairs ($943 million) and others ($175 million). The total federal R&D spending represented 13.1 percent of the discretionary budget and 1.01 percent of the nation’s gross domestic product (GDP). In 2017, those percentages had declined to 9.6 percent and 0.7 percent, respectively.
8. 8. 124 Stat. 3982, Public Law 111-358, January 4, 2011, H.R. 5116, 42 U.S.C. § 11861 note (2011) (www.congress.gov/111/plaws/publ358/PLAW-111publ358.pdf)
9. 9. For a record of congressional actions, see www.congress.gov/bill/111th-congress/house-bill/5116/actions.
10. 10. J.P. Holdren and M. Smith, “Exit Memo: Office of Science and Technology Policy” (The White House, President Barack Obama, Cabinet Exit Memos, Washington, D.C. 2017). obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/administration/cabinet/exit-memos/office-science-and-technology-policy.
11. 11. See “New START: Treaty Text,” Diplomacy In Action, U.S. Department of State. www.state.gov/t/avc/newstart/c44126.htm.
12. 12. See, for example, apps.washingtonpost.com/g/documents/world/full-text-of-the-iran-nuclear-deal/1651/.
13. 13. For the complete text of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (known familiarly as the 2015 Paris Climate Accord), see unfccc.int/sites/default/files/english_paris_agreement.pdf. A concise summary appears at www.nrdc.org/sites/default/files/paris-climate-agreement-IB.pdf.
14. 14. D.K Shipler, “The Summit; Reagan and Gorbachev Sign Missile Treaty and Vow to Work for Greater Reductions,” The New York Times, December 9, 1987
15. 15. J. Bresolin and B. Gautam, “Fact Sheet: The Nunn-Lugar Cooperative Threat Reduction Program,” The Center for Arms Control and Non-Proliferation, Washington D.C., June, 2014 (armscontrolcenter.org/fact-sheet-the-nunn-lugar-cooperative-threat-reduction-program/).
16. 16. P.I. Bernstein and J.D. Wood, “The Origins of Nunn-Lugar and Cooperative Threat Reduction,” Case Studies Series ed. by J.A. Larsen and E.R. Mahan, Center for the Study of Weapons of Mass Destruction, National Defense University, Washington, D.C., April 2010 (ndupress.ndu.edu/portals/68/documents/casestudies/cswmd_casestudy-3.pdf).
17. 17. For a record of Senate actions on START I, see www.congress.gov/treaty-document/102nd-congress/20.
18. 18. For a record of Senate actions on START II, see www.congress.gov/treaty-document/103rd-congress/1/.
19. 19. See “Treaty Between The United States of America and The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics on The Limitation of Anti-Ballistic Missile Systems (ABM Treaty), Diplomacy in Action, U.S. Department of State. www.state.gov/t/avc/trty/101888.htm.
20. 20. See “Comprehensive Nuclear Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT),” Diplomacy in Action, U.S. Department of State. www.congress.gov/treaty-document/111th-congress/5.
21. 21. For a record of Senate actions on New START, see www.congress.gov/treaty-document/111th-congress/5.
22. 22. The full text of the Galvin Report can be found at “The Galvin Report,” Secretary of Energy Advisory Board Task Force on Alternative Futures for the Department of Energy National Laboratories, R. Galvin, chair, February 1995. scipp.ucsc.edu/~haber/UC_CORP/galvin.htm.
23. 23. E. Klein, “Letter from Los Alamos: The Hunting of Wen Ho Lee,” Vanity Fair, December 2000, pp. 142 ff. (edwardklein.com/pdfs/december_2000_VF_the_hunting_of_wen_ho_lee.pdf).
24. 24. E. Schmitt, “Spying Furor Brings Vote In Senate For New Unit,” The New York Times, July 22, 1999 (www.nytimes.com/1999/07/22/world/spying-furor-brings-vote-in-senate-for-new-unit.html).
25. 25. 113 Stat. 512, Public Law 106-65, October 5, 1999, S. 1059, U.S.C. § 3211 et seq. (1999) (www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/PLAW-106publ65/pdf/PLAW-106publ65.pdf).
26. 26. “Department of Energy: National Laboratories Need Clearer Missions and Batter Management,” United States General Accounting Office Report to the Secretary of Energy (GAO/RECD-95-10), Washington, D.C., January, 1995 (www.gao.gov/assets/160/154864.pdf).
27. 27. It was not the first time GAO had weighed in so strongly. In 1993, it had issued a report with a similar warning in its title, “Management Problems Require a Long-Term Commitment to Change” United States General Accounting Office Report to the Secretary of Energy (GAO/RECD-93-72), Washington, D.C., August, 1993 (www.gao.gov/assets/220/218381.pdf).
28. 28. V. Ehlers, Unlocking Our Future: Toward a New National Science Policy, Committee on Science, U.S. House of Representatives, One Hundred Fifth Congress (Committee Print 105-B, September 1998). www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/GPO-CPRT-105hprt105-b/pdf/GPO-CPRT-105hprt105-b.pdf.
29. 29. 100 Stat. 1758, Public Law 99-502, October 20, 1986, H.R. 3773, 15 U.S.C. § 3701 et seq. (1986) (www.congress.gov/bill/99th-congress/house-bill/3773/text?q=%7B%22search%22%3A%5B%22Public+Law+99+502%22%5D%7D&r=2).
30. 30. Section 319 of the “Consolidated Appropriations Act of 2014,” 128 Stat. 6, Public Law 113-76, January 14, 2014, H.R. 3547, 1 U.S.C. § 1 note (2014) (www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/PLAW-113publ76/pdf/PLAW-113publ76.pdf).
31. 31. T.J. Glothier (co-chair), J.L Cohon (co-chair) et al., “Securing America’s Future: Realizing the Potential of the Department of Energy’s National Laboratories—Final Report of the Commission to Review the Effectiveness of the National Energy Laboratories,” U.S. Department of Energy, October 28, 2015 (www.energy.gov/sites/prod/files/2015/10/f27/Final%20Report%20Volume%201.pdf; www.energy.gov/sites/prod/files/2015/10/f27/Final%20Report%20Volume%202.pdf).
32. 32. There was scant evidence in the files of CIA analysts to back up the Administration’s assertion that WMDs existed. (Anonymous private communication.)
33. 33. R. Pielke, Jr., “Ernest Moniz and the Physics of Diplomacy,” The Guardian, April 8, 2015 (https://www.theguardian.com/science/political-science/2015/apr/08/ernest-moniz-and-the-physics-of-diplomacy).
34. 34. www.state.gov/documents/organization/245317.pdf.
35. 35. www.state.gov/e/eb/tfs/spi/iran/jcpoa/.
36. 36. M. Lander, “Trump Abandons Iran Nuclear Deal He Long Scorned,” The New York Times, May 8, 2018 (www.nytimes.com/2018/05/08/world/middleeast/trump-iran-nuclear-deal.html).
37. 37. For temperature trends, see “Climate Change: Vital Signs of the Planet, Global Temperature,” Goddard Institute for Space Studies, NASA. climate.nasa.gov/vital-signs/global-temperature/.
38. 38. For polar icecap trends, see “Arctic Sea Ice Reaches Another Record Low,” Goddard Space Flight Center, NASA, March 7, 2017. https://www.nasa.gov/feature/goddard/2017/sea-ice-extent-sinks-to-record-lows-at-both-poles.
39. 39. For sea level trends, see “Climate Change: Vital Signs of the Planet, Sea Level,” Goddard Institute for Space Studies, NASA. climate.nasa.gov/vital-signs/sea-level/.
40. 40. “Climate Change Indicators: Weather and Climate,” U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. https://www.epa.gov/climate-indicators/weather-climate.
41. 41. “Trends in Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide: Full Mauna Loa CO₂ Record,” Global Greenhouse Gas Reference Network, Earth System Research Laboratory, Global Monitoring Division, National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration, U.S. Department of Commerce. www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/ccgg/trends/full.html.
42. 42. See J. Warrick, “Reagan, Bush 41 Memos Reveal Sharp Contrast With Today’s GOP On Climate and the Environment,” The Washington Post, December 3, 2015, especially the embedded Bernthal memorandum (www.washingtonpost.com/news/energy-environment/wp/2015/12/03/reagan-bush-41-memos-reveal-how-republicans-used-to-think-about-climate-change-and-the-environment/?utm_term=.f4ce4961c10d).
43. 43. N. Popovich and L. Albeck-Ripka, “How Republicans Think About Climate Change—In Maps,” The New York Times, December 14, 2017 (www.nytimes.com/interactive/2017/12/14/climate/republicans-global-warming-maps.html).
44. 44. M. Mildenberger, J. R. Marlon, P.D. Howe and A. Leiserowitz, “The Spatial Distribution of Republican and Democratic Climate Opinions at State and Local Scales,” Climate Change 145 (3), 539–548 (2017).
45. 45. G. Thrush and C.B. Brown, “Obama’s Health Care Conversion,” Politico, September 22–23, 2013 (www.politico.com/story/2013/09/obama-health-care-conversion-obamacare-097185).
46. 46. See www.congress.gov/bill/111th-congress/house-bill/3590.
47. 47. See https://www.congress.gov/bill/111th-congress/house-bill/2454.
48. 48. For a technical but reasonably accessible book on energy and climate change, see B. Richter, Beyond Smoke and Mirrors: Climate Change and Energy in the 21st Century (Cambridge University Press, New York, 2010).
49. 49. Wien’s Law is usually stated as λ_max = 2.9 × 10⁶/T, where λ_max is the wavelength in nanometers (nm) where the emitted radiation is most intense, and T is the temperature in Kelvin of the body emitting the radiation. The relation applies precisely only to “black bodies,” which are perfect emitters or absorbers. The Sun and the Earth are approximately so.
50. 50. B. Richter, op. cit., p. 196.
51. 51. See “Greenhouse Gas Emissions in the United States 2009,” U.S. Energy Information Administration, U.S. Department of Energy, Washington, D.C., March 2011 (www.eia.gov/environment/emissions/ghg_report/pdf/0573%282009%29.pdf).
52. 52. B. Richter, op. cit., pp. 197–200.
53. 53. 121 Stat. 1492, Public Law 110-140, December 19, 2007, H.R. 6, 42 U.S.C. § 1401 note (2007) (www.congress.gov/110/plaws/publ140/PLAW-110publ140.pdf).
54. 54. For a discussion of energy efficiency, see B. Richter (co-chair), D. Goldston (co-chair) et al., “Energy Future: Think Efficiency—How America Can Look Within to Achieve Energy Security and Reduce Global Warming,” Rev. Mod. Phys. 80, S1 (2008) (www.aps.org/energyefficiencyreport/report/aps-energyreport.pdf) and M.S. Lubell and B. Richter, “Energy Efficiency: Transportation and Buildings,” AIP Conf. Proc. 1401, 107 (2011).
55. 55. C. Curtis, “President Obama Announces New Fuel Economy Standards,” The White House, President Barack Obama, Blog, July 29, 2011 (obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/blog/2011/07/29/president-obama-announces-new-fuel-economy-standards).
56. 56. “Driving Efficiency: Cutting Costs for Families at the Pump and Slashing Dependence on Oil,” Obama Administration Fuel Economy Standards in the Year 2025 (obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/sites/default/files/fuel_economy_report.pdf).
57. 57. Two Independents, Bernie Sanders of Vermont and Angus King of Maine, caucused with the 51 Democrats.
58. 58. “Paris Agreement,” United Nations, 2015 (unfccc.int/sites/default/files/english_paris_agreement.pdf).
59. 59. J. Kirkland, “How Moniz Pushed Energy Innovation Onto Paris’ Main Stage,” E&E News Energywire, Thurs., December 17, 2015 (www.eenews.net/stories/1060029626).
60. 60. “FACT SHEET: President’s Budget Proposal to Advance Mission Innovation,” Briefing Room, The White House, Office of the Press Secretary, February 6, 2016 (obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the-press-office/2016/02/06/fact-sheet-presidents-budget-proposal-advance-mission-innovation).
61. 61. “Testimony of Secretary Ernest Moniz, U.S. Department of Energy, Before the Subcommittee on Energy and Power, Committee on Energy and Commerce, U.S. House of Representatives, March 2, 2016” (U.S. Department of Energy—www.energy.gov/sites/prod/files/2016/03/f30/3.2.16%20Final%20FY%202017%20Sec%20Moniz%20HEC%20Budget%20Hearing%20Testimony.pdf).
62. 62. J. Taylor, “Obama’s Energy Secretary Champions Nuclear Power To Fight Global Warming,” Forbes, September 20, 2016 (www.forbes.com/sites/jamestaylor/2016/09/20/obamas-energy-secretary-champions-nuclear-power-to-fight-global-warming/#71fce0e47517).
63. 63. “Federal Science Budget Tracker—FYI Science Policy News from AIP, Fiscal Year 2017,” American Institute of Physics, College Park, Md. (www.aip.org/fyi/federal-science-budget-tracker/FY2017).

Chapter 12: Loose change

1. 1. T. Friedman, Thank You for Being Late: An Optimist’s Guide to Thriving in the Age of Accelerations (Farrar, Strauss and Giroux, New York, 2016), especially pp. 28–35.
2. 2. Charles Townes, Arthur Schawlow and Theodore Maiman are generally credited with inventing the laser. Townes, a Columbia University professor of physics, and Schawlow, a Bell Labs staff member, developed the theory, and Maiman, a Hughes Aircraft Company scientist, produced the first working model. Gordon Gould, a Columbia University doctoral student at the time and later a staff scientist at the private research company TRG, fought Maiman over the patent rights but never succeeded in the United States.
3. 3. J. Gertner, The Idea Factory: Bell Labs and the Great Age of American Innovation (The Penguin Press, New York, 2012).
4. 4. W. Isaacson, “Inventing the Future: ‘The Idea Factory,’ by Jon Gartner,” The New York Times, April 6, 2012 (www.nytimes.com/2012/04/08/books/review/the-idea-factory-by-jon-gertner.html).
5. 5. D.E. Stokes, Pasteur’s Quadrant: Basic Science and Technological Innovation (Brookings Institution Press, Washington, D.C., 1997).
6. 6. Sixty-seventh Congress, Sess. I, Public Law 67-15, June 10, 1921, H.R. 6567, 42 U.S.C. § 27–28 (1921) (uscode.house.gov/statviewer.htm?volume=42&page=27#).
7. 7. J. Gertner, op. cit., pp. 300-301.
8. 8. For the complete hearing transcript and video recording see www.c-span.org/video/?283308-1/energy-secretary-nomination-hearing.
9. 9. Reuters, “A Third Solar Company Files for Bankruptcy,” The New York Times, September 6, 2011 (archive.nytimes.com/www.nytimes.com/gwire/2011/09/06/06greenwire-solyndra-bankruptcy-reveals-dark-clouds-in-sol-45598.html).
10. 10. K. Fehrenbacher, “Why the Solyndra Mistake Is Still Important to Remember,” Fortune, August 27, 2015 (fortune.com/2015/08/27/remember-solyndra-mistake/).
11. 11. G. Avalos, “With $535M Federal Loan, Solyndra Begins Work On Fremont Solar-Panel Plant,” The Mercury News, September 4, 2009 (www.mercurynews.com/2009/09/04/with-535m-federal-loan-solyndra-begins-work-on-fremont-solar-panel-plant-2/).
12. 12. 50 U.S.C. § 161—“An Act Authorizing the Conservation, Production, and Exploitation of Helium Gas, a Mineral Resource Pertaining to the National Defense, and to the Development of Commercial Aeronautics, and for Other Purposes,” Sixty-Eighth Congress, Sess. II, Ch. 426. March 3, 1925, pp. 1110, 1111 (uscode.house.gov/statviewer.htm?volume=43&page=1110#).
13. 13. 74 Stat. 918, Public Law 86-777, September 13, 1960, H.R. 10548, 50 U.S.C. § 161 et seq. (1960) (www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/STATUTE-74/pdf/STATUTE-74-Pg918.pdf).
14. 14. 110 Stat. 3315, Public Law 104-273, October 9, 1996, H.R. 4168, 50 U.S.C. 167 Note (1960) (www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/PLAW-104publ273/pdf/PLAW-104publ273.pdf).
15. 15. See R. Jaffe, J. Price, et al., “Energy Critical Elements: Securing Materials for emerging Technologies” (American Physical Society Panel on Public Affairs and the Materials Research Society, Washington, D.C., 2011) (www.aps.org/policy/reports/popa-reports/upload/elementsreport.pdf) and S.R. Bare, M. Lilly et al., “The U.S. Research Community’s Liquid Helium Crisis,” (American Physical Society, Materials Research Society and American Chemical Society, Washington, D.C., 2016) (www.aps.org/policy/reports/popa-reports/upload/HeliumReport.pdf).
16. 16. 127 Stat. 534, Public Law 113-40, October 2, 2013, H.R. 527, 50 U.S.C 167 Note (2013) (www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/PLAW-113publ40/pdf/PLAW-113publ40.pdf).
17. 17. G. Collins, “Ode to Helium,” The New York Times, May 3, 2013 (www.nytimes.com/2013/05/04/opinion/collins-an-ode-to-helium.html).
18. 18. “Last Minute Legislation Averts Helium Supply Crisis,” APS News 22 (10), November 2013, ed. by A. Chodos, (American Physical Society, College Park, Md.).
19. 19. M. Elsesser, private communication.
20. 20. P. Gwynne, “Physicists Seek to Cut Helium Costs,” Physics World, June 24, 2014.
21. 21. See, for example, “The Rise and Fall of Corporate R&D: Out of the Dusty Labs,” Briefing, The Economist, March 1, 2007 (www.economist.com/briefing/2007/03/01/out-of-the-dusty-labs).
22. 22. 94 Stat. 96, Public Law 96-517, December 12, 1980, H.R. 6933, 35 U.S.C. § 200 et seq. (1980) (www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/STATUTE-94/pdf/STATUTE-94-Pg3015.pdf).
23. 23. See files.taxfoundation.org/legacy/docs/fed_individual_rate_history_nominal.pdf.
24. 24. See www.taxpolicycenter.org/briefing-book/how-are-capital-gains-taxed.
25. 25. 121 Stat. 574, Public Law 110-69, August 9, 2007, H.R. 2272, 20 U.S.C. § 9801 note (2007) (www.congress.gov/110/plaws/publ69/PLAW-110publ69.pdf).
26. 26. See http://www.sciencephilanthropyalliance.org/.
27. 27. “U.S. Research Institutions Received Over $2.3 Billion in Private Funding for Basic Science in 2017,” Alliance News, Science Philanthropy Alliance, June 7, 2018.
28. 28. “Trends in Basic Research by Agency,” AAAS Report: Research and Development Series (American Association for the Advancement of Science, Washington, D.C., 2018) (www.aaas.org/sites/default/files/BasicRes;.jpg).
29. 29. “Federal R&D as a Percentage of GDP,” AAAS Report: Research and Development Series (American Association for the Advancement of Science, Washington, D.C., 2018) (www.aaas.org/sites/default/files/RDGDP;.jpg).
30. 30. “Global Innovation Index 2018: Energizing the World with Innovation, 11th Edition,” Ed. by S. Dutta, B. Lanvin and S. Wunsch-Vincent [Cornell University SC Johnson College of Business, INSEAD (The Business School of the World) and WIPO (World Intellectual Property Organization), Ithaca, Fontainebleau and Geneva, 2018] (www.globalinnovationindex.org/Home).
31. 31. See, for example, B.P. Bosworth, “Sources of Real Wage Stagnation,” Op-Ed, Brookings, December 22, 2014 (www.brookings.edu/opinions/sources-of-real-wage-stagnation/); J. Shambaugh, R. Nunn, P. Liu and G. Nantz, “Thirteen Facts About Wage Growth,” Economic Facts, The Hamilton Project, Brookings, Washington, D.C., September 2017 (www.hamiltonproject.org/assets/files/thirteen_facts_wage_growth.pdf).
32. 32. T. Piketty, Capital in the Twenty-First Century, translated by A. Goldhammer, (Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass., 2014).
33. 33. See, for example, J. Hawksworth and R. Berriman, “Will Robots Really Steal Our Jobs: An International Analysis of the Potential Long Term Impact of Automation,” PricewaterhouseCoopers, LLC, London, United Kingdom, 2018 (www.pwc.com/hu/hu/kiadvanyok/assets/pdf/impact_of_automation_on_jobs.pdf).
34. 34. T. Friedman, The World Is Flat (Farrar, Straus and Giroux, New York, 2005).
35. 35. J. Hawksworth and R. Berriman op. cit., p. 2.
36. 36. T. Friedman, Thank You for Being Late, op. cit., pp. 33.
37. 37. See National Center for Education Statistics (NCES), Program for International Student Assessment (PISA) 2015 Results (nces.ed.gov/surveys/pisa/pisa2015/index.asp)
38. 38. NCES, op. cit., Science Literacy: School Poverty Indicator (nces.ed.gov/surveys/pisa/pisa2015/pisa2015highlights_3e.asp).
39. 39. NCES, op. cit., Mathematics Literacy: School Poverty Indicator (nces.ed.gov/surveys/pisa/pisa2015/pisa2015highlights_5d.asp).
40. 40. C. DeNavas-Walt and B.D. Proctor, “Income and Poverty in the United States: 2014,” Current Population Reports, United States Census Bureau, U.S. Department of Commerce, Economic and Statistics Administration, September 2015 (www.census.gov/content/dam/Census/library/publications/2015/demo/p60-252.pdf).
41. 41. OECD Income Distribution Database (IDD): Gini, Poverty, Methods and Concepts: www.oecd.org/social/income-distribution-database.htm.
42. 42. R.D. Putnam, Our Kids: The American Dream in Crisis (Simon and Schuster, New York, 2015).
43. 43. J. DeParle, “‘Our Kids,’ by Robert D. Putnam,” The New York Times, March 4, 2015 (www.nytimes.com/2015/03/08/books/review/our-kids-by-robert-d-putnam.html).
44. 44. T. Friedman, op. cit.
45. 45. For a layman’s description of CRISPR, see B. Plumer, E. Barclay, J. Bulluz and U. Irfan, “A Simple Guide to CRISPR, One of the Biggest Science Stories of the Decade,” Vox, July 23, 2018 (www.vox.com/2018/7/23/17594864/crispr-cas9-gene-editing).
46. 46. “The Precision Medicine Initiative,” Obama White House Archives, January 30, 2015 (obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/precision-medicine).