CHAPTER 2
FUNDAMENTALS OF LIFE DRAWING
Making Marks
THE THREE MARKS
The first and most simple statement in a figure drawing is the mark. Marks can take an infinite number of shapes or forms, and there is no right or wrong way to make a mark. For the purpose of drawing from life and becoming efficient and proficient, I like to simplify to three basic marks. These three marks are “straights,” “C-curves,” and “S-curves.” I also call them “I, C, S,” because their shapes resemble the three letters.
The figure and head can easily be drawn and constructed with straight, C-curve, and S-curve lines, especially in the beginning stages.
Straight marks don’t really occur in nature or organic forms such as human beings, but as artists we can use them to great effect in our drawings. C-curves are everywhere. About 80 percent of a figure drawing consists of C-curves. S-curves occur when two C-curves oppose each other, meaning they flow or bend in the opposite direction. S-curves are commonly seen in twisting forms and poses. Later in the book we will examine how to use the three marks to start and build the drawing. Following are examples of how the three marks can be used in a drawing.
Line vs. Tone
In drawing, especially with dry mediums such as pencils, most of the marks made take the form of either lines or soft, tonal marks.
When we begin to draw the figure, lines are a natural choice. As we advance, we can also draw with tonal marks. I define a tonal mark as one that has a wide shape and softer look. Tones are generally used when shading or describing the light. As we advance, we can begin the drawing with tonal marks. Ideally, with practice, the trained artist will use both marks and flow between line and tone to create beautiful effects.
Again, there is no right or wrong way to make a mark. For the purpose of this book, the focus will be on line for the beginning stages of the drawing and tonal marks for the later stages.
This example shows how a drawing begins with tone (A) or begins with line (B), and how both can be used together to create a beautiful drawing (C).
The Concept of Gesture
The first and most important concept or idea in the art and practice of figure drawing is gesture. These are often the first marks made, and this is the foundation from which an entire drawing is built. So any book that attempts to teach figure drawing must include an examination of gesture.
Because gesture is so important, I will spend some time defining and explaining it and expand on this essential and fundamental concept.
WHAT IS GESTURE?
The concept of gesture and the word itself are often used and often misunderstood. Gesture is a mysterious concept that is almost impossible to describe or define in words because at its essence, gesture is an artist’s attempt to capture life itself. Besides being a drawing method, gesture is also an action an artist takes and a way of drawing that expresses feeling and emotion in the moment.
There are many ways to draw gesture. Gesture can be controlled, rhythmic, chaotic, or all of the above.
A page of one-minute gesture drawings from a live, costumed model. Short poses are great for practicing gesture.
Gesture is movement, and it connects forms. Like the water inside living things, it flows from one part of a form to another. In this drawing, gesture lines flow from the legs to the body to the arm; from the head to the arm to the head; and back again.
For the purpose of this book, I define gesture as:
The fluid movement between two or more forms in space.
Gesture is fluid because organic, living forms are mostly made of water. This is especially true of human beings, which are 70 percent water. Like water, gesture can take many forms and shapes and is impossible to contain.
“Space” refers to the way gesture moves along and around the exterior or outer edges of forms, but also into, out of, and through forms.
Steve Huston, one of my great figure drawing teachers, describes gesture as the connection and relationship between parts or forms of a figure. For example, gesture connects and relates the head to the toes, the shoulder to the wrist, and the wrist to the fingers.
FORM AND FUNCTION OF GESTURE
Gesture has many functions and can take many forms in our drawing. Below are some of the important ways we can see and use gesture when we draw the figure.
Long Axis, Action Line, or “Thrust”
The first and most important gesture line to define is known as the “long axis.” In a mathematical sense, the long axis is parallel to, or runs along, the longest side of a solid or form. In figure drawing, the “long axis” is the longest, most uninterrupted gesture line in the figure or form, because even the smallest forms have their own long axis.
The long axis is a mathematical term that describes the longest side of a form. In figure drawing, it is the longest, most uninterrupted gesture line. All forms, from largest to smallest, have their own long axis.
When drawing the figure, the long axis of a pose is also known as the “thrust” or the “action line” because it describes the fundamental action of the pose. If done right, the first few gesture lines can communicate the primary action of the pose. The action line answers the question: “What is the pose (figure) doing?” Communicating the action of a pose is one of the most important responsibilities of an artist and should be the goal for any student of figure drawing.
I almost always start with the action line because it adds a sense of movement, but it also is a great foundation for building the rest of the drawing.
The action line is a great way to start a drawing. Not only does it define the movement and action of the pose, but it serves as a design line from which the entire drawing can be built.
Stretch and Pinch
To move the human body, our muscles and bones work in a pulley-lever-type system. This means that when a muscle or muscle group contracts, another must elongate or stretch. For example, when the arm is flexed, the bicep muscle contracts and the tricep muscle on the opposite side of the arm stretches.
In figure drawing, this action of muscle contraction and elongation is known as “stretch and pinch.”
When one muscle or group of muscles contracts (pinches), another group (usually on the opposite side) must elongate or relax (stretch). This is how the human machine is built and is true throughout the body.
Stretch is long; it is a curve. It serves as the action line of the form. Pinch can appear as small, curved forms, bunching, or groups of small forms.
When drawing, I keep the stretch side as simple as possible. I use long curves and try to leave the curve smooth, without adding bumps or details if possible. The pinch side is where I add detail. This is where I can have fun drawing small muscles and interesting curves and shapes.
When done correctly, the combination of long, smooth curves in some areas and lumps, bumps, and details in others adds contrast to a drawing. Contrast is a simple and effective way to make the drawing feel more sophisticated, polished, and beautiful.
Stretch and pinch are opposite, contrasting forces. I keep the stretch as simple as possible, using long, simple curves. This suggests muscles stretching and elongating. In contrast I draw the pinch with short, aggressive strokes that suggest muscles contracting and overlapping. This contrast makes a drawing feel more sophisticated, dynamic, and lifelike.
Stretch and pinch typically happens on the sides of the form and moves along the form. Another way that gesture can move is over forms, which we’ll explore next, is “structure.”
Structure
When we draw the long axis of a figure or the curved stretch of a form, these gesture lines occur along the form, meaning they are generally drawn on the sides, or outer edges. When a gesture moves over the form, it is known as structure. For example, a line drawn from the left side of the rib cage to the right is structure.
Structure is what creates a feeling of volume. It turns a flat rectangle into a solid cylinder. In fact, it makes any flat, two-dimensional shape into a three-dimensional solid or volume.
Gesture runs along the form and structure runs over the form.
Adding corners and ends gives structure to forms. Corners and ends help contain and create a rigidity that balances the fluid, watery design of a gesture drawing.
Structure turns 2-D shapes into 3-D solids. In figure drawing, structure becomes a great tool to make flat figures feel more full, solid, and volumetric.
Structure is necessary because gesture lines alone are fluid, whereas structure gives a drawing form and solidity by creating a way to contain the fluid nature of the body.
One way structure can be used is at corners and at the ends of forms. Corners happen when a shape ends and changes direction. Corners also occur on the front side of the form. A simple bulge or bump in anatomy can be a corner. Also, when we add light and shadow, we can use shadow shapes and highlights to define corners.
Whenever I want more structure, I simply terminate a form and add a corner, and therefore structure.
Rhythms
Rhythms are one of the most important forms of gesture. Like gesture and structure, rhythms move along and over the forms, but rhythms also go through forms. Rhythms are naturally occurring gesture lines that often follow the natural flow of the anatomy. For example, a line drawn from the ear flows rhythmically to the shoulder, and a line from the shoulder can flow to the chest, ribs, and all the way down to the legs.
Because rhythms often follow anatomy, they are a great way to simplify the anatomy when drawing. This makes rhythms ideal for drawing and sketching from life.
Rhythms are everywhere. They can be seen in the natural flow of human anatomy, but a trained artist can also invent rhythms to make a drawing come to life.
Because muscles and joints naturally flow from one to another, they can be quickly described and simplified with rhythm lines.
One of the main functions of rhythm is to extend a gesture line. For example, you can extend the stretch side of the torso to flow from the hand all the way to the toe, or go in any number of directions.
Rhythm lines flow up, down, left, right, and around. They create movement by keeping the gesture alive. This movement creates a beautiful eye-flow, which keeps the viewer engaged in a drawing. How many more rhythm lines can you see in this example?
Drawing in this way also leads the viewer’s eye through the drawing. This is known as “eye-flow.” Having good eye-flow is a more advanced compositional idea, but by using rhythms you can add another dimension to your figures and make them much more eye-catching and appealing to the audience.
These are just some of the ways gesture can be used in drawings; there are many more ways to use and apply gesture. To describe them all would take an entire book on the subject alone.
For the beginning of this figure drawing journey, the forms and concepts defined here can build a foundation for a process that you can use in your figure drawing practice.
The process of drawing will be examined in detail later in this book.
Construction
Cylinders, boxes, spheres, and cones are the simplest and most basic geometric forms. They are great tools for simplifying the figure when drawing from life.
WHAT IS CONSTRUCTION?
Like gesture, construction is a term often associated with figure drawing. For the purpose of this book, I define construction as:
A method of drawing a complex subject using simple solids (geometric forms).
Simple solids, also known as geometric forms, “base forms,” or volumes, is a mathematical term that refers to cylinders, boxes, spheres, and cones.
WHY DRAW CONSTRUCTION?
The primary purpose of construction is to help create the illusion of three-dimensional form. Because paper (or any drawing surface) is essentially flat, or two-dimensional, an artist must use tools and strategies to create the illusion of three-dimensional form. Construction and form drawing are among the first and primary tools an artist can use to suggest depth, which is the third dimension. The concept of two-dimensional and three-dimensional drawing will be explored in further detail later in this chapter.
Construction is also necessary because it adds solidity and weight to figures. With gesture alone, figures feel very loose, light, and unstable. With construction and geometric forms, figures start to feel full, solid, and volumetric.
But of course, you don’t want to use only geometric forms or rely too much on form drawing without gesture. If you do, your figures can become very stiff and mannequin-like. This is one of the main criticisms and dangers of construction drawing. The solution is to begin with gesture, then add construction, and then work to maintain a balance between movement and form, gesture and construction.
Gesture adds fluid movement to figures, but gesture alone can be too fluid, too watery. It feels weak and unstable. When balanced with construction, figures feel solid, three-dimensional, and more lifelike.
CONSTRUCTION IS STRUCTURE
In “Form and Function of Gesture” (see here), I made the case that structure is gesture that moves over a form. By moving over the form, two-dimensional shapes become three-dimensional volumes. Squares become cylinders and boxes, and circles become spheres. This means that when we add structure to our gesture drawings, we are using construction.
In essence, construction is still gesture. If drawn correctly, construction can add movement, depth, and life to a drawing. This process of balancing gesture with structure and construction drawing will be explored in great detail later in this book.
Construction is structure and therefore gesture. Construction doesn’t have to be stiff. If drawn correctly, with long lines and curves, construction can be fluid and add movement, as well as create depth and structure.
Two-Dimensional Shapes
WHAT IS SHAPE?
Shapes are objects that have an outer boundary. In figure drawing, this boundary is also known as a contour. In a picture, plane shapes represent the visual space an object occupies. This visual space is also known as a silhouette.
In the drawing process, shapes are the logical evolution of line because lines combine to create the outer boundary of shapes. I refer to them as two-dimensional shapes, because they have only two dimensions: length and height. This means shapes are flat, like the surface we draw or paint on. The most basic shapes are squares, triangles, circles, rectangles, and ovals. In figure drawing, the most common shapes are rectangles and ovals.
WHY ARE SHAPES USEFUL?
Shapes are helpful because they can be used as symbols for more complex objects. They can indicate or describe something more complex. Because they can be drawn quickly, they work well for the initial stages of a figure drawing, especially if the pose is timed. For example, an oval can be used to symbolize, or indicate, a head. A rectangle can be used to indicate a torso, arm, or leg. A triangle can indicate a hand or foot.
The other reason shapes are useful is design. Drawn well, a shape can quickly communicate a pose. By designing an appropriate shape, the artist can better communicate the idea, pose, or form they are drawing. Because shapes can be quickly drawn and edited, they are very effective for using in a life drawing setting.
A shape that is designed well can communicate a pose. Even with no details, the shapes in this diagram start to communicate a standing, sitting, and reclining pose.
OBSERVING SHAPES
Shapes are everywhere on the figure. To see shapes, look for the outer boundary of the figure, then the outer boundary of all the other forms. For example, the outer points of the pose below create a triangle-like shape (A). The interior forms also create secondary shapes (B). Even the smallest forms have outer boundaries that can be seen and defined as shapes (C).
USING SHAPES
When drawing the figure, I always start with the largest shapes possible. These are the large masses and major shapes. Once I see and design large shapes that work well, I can then look for and begin to design secondary shapes. I can also evolve flat, two-dimensional shapes into three-dimensional shapes, which we’ll examine next.
Three-Dimensional Shapes
The next evolution of shapes are simple solids, or volumes, also known as three-dimensional (3-D) shapes. Three-dimensional means the shapes imply length, height, and depth, which is the third dimension. Three-dimensional shapes can only suggest depth, because of course, drawings and the drawing surface still exist on flat, two-dimensional (2-D) surfaces or planes. Because the drawing surface is flat, the artist must use every tool necessary to create the illusion of depth, and 3-D shapes are one of the first and simplest tools to accomplish this task.
Adding corners to a 2-D shape quickly creates structure and volume and helps suggest depth.
WHAT ARE 3-D SHAPES?
A 3-D shape or volume is essentially a 2-D shape that has corners and multiple surfaces, or planes. The most common 3-D shapes are cubes, cones, cylinders, and spheres, which are derived from squares, triangles, and circles. Three-dimensional forms can be stretched, elongated, and compressed to create endless variety. They can also be combined to create compound 3-D shapes.
WHY DRAW WITH 3-D SHAPES AND VOLUMES?
The primary function of 3-D shapes is to create structure. If a figure is drawn with only line and shapes, it can feel “watery’” or flat. With 3-D shapes and volumes, a drawing starts to feel more rigid and solid. For example, when a square becomes a cube, a corner is added, which adds structure. When a rectangle has curved ends and cross sections, it becomes a cylinder, which adds a feeling of volume and mass.
HOW TO DRAW 3-D SHAPES
Three-dimensional shapes and volumes are useful for structure and depth, but they can feel stiff and “robotic” if drawn excessively or carelessly. One way to make 3-D forms more lifelike is to draw tapering forms and curved lines. Tapering means that the sides of a form gradually converge at one end, making that end smaller. This makes the drawing feel more natural because it mimics the way organic forms, such as the human body, naturally curve and taper.
Tapering lines are also helpful because they suggest perspective, as the lines appear to converge to an imagined vanishing point. This is especially useful for drawing foreshortened forms and defining their movement into and out of 3-D space. We will examine foreshortening in detail later.
Another useful 3-D tool is cross sections. Cross sections define an end of a form. They naturally occur at the joints, or where one body part meets another. If I want more structure and volume, I can also add cross sections in the middle of a form. For example, the bulge of the leg muscles or the pinching of a contracted bicep are opportunities to add cross sections and more volume.
The diagram opposite shows how tapering and curved forms feel much more natural than symmetrical forms (A). When I draw a form, such as a leg (B), I start with tapering lines (1) and then add cross sections at the ends of forms such as the knees and ankles, but also where forms bulge or pinch (2). These cross sections help me place anatomy and detail and make my lay-in, or foundation, drawing feel more volumetric (3).
Three-dimensional forms are the first tool I use to suggest depth because they are made up of lines. Another powerful tool is to add light and shadow to drawings, which we will examine next.
Introduction to Shading, Light, and Shadow
Lighting and shading are among the most beautiful and exciting parts of realistic drawing. When I first learned how to shade, I felt like I had a superpower. My drawings took on a whole new dimension and started to come to life.
However, I didn’t learn shading overnight and I didn’t learn it from a single book. In fact, I didn’t learn from a book at all, the topic is so massive and complex.
Here I present an overview of this awesome technique, and also how you can begin to use light and shadow in your drawings. Even though this chapter is only an introduction, there are many examples throughout that demonstrate a shading process that I use when drawing from life. Before you draw, I must first lay the foundation by introducing the three core principles of shading: value, shape, and edge.
PRINCIPLE 1: SIMPLIFIED VALUES
The first concept to understand in light and shadow is value. Values are lights and darks. They are pure black, pure white, and all the grays in between. The range of values visible to the human eye is infinite and complex. With our crude drawing tools of pencils, paint, and paper, and with our time limitations, it is not possible to copy or match the infinite values that we see in nature. To begin using values, the artist must first control value. To control value, we first simplify.
The value bar at the top of the diagram (A) represents the full range of visible values, from pure black to pure white. To control values, you must first learn to see and limit the values you use. The most simple value palettes are three-value (B) and two-value (C). The spheres (D) show how limited values can look on a simple form.
To begin shading, start with the simplest value range of two values: one value for light and one for dark. Limiting yourself to two values may seem impossible, but a lot can be accomplished with only two values. This is done with good design and using shape to begin communicating.
Of course, there are many more values the artist can use, especially to achieve the illusion of realistic form. The next logical value range is the three-value system of light, dark, and halftone, which is also known as midtone.
The beautiful thing about a three-value system is that it allows for another value group to model the form. Modeling form means to make forms feel round and three-dimensional. Halftones allow the artist to make a more modeled form by providing smoother transitions. This means you can use the tones to help transition from a dark shadow to a lighter area. Along with value, this transition can be accomplished with edge (see here).
The demonstrations in this book are limited to two- and three-value drawings. For beginner artists, I recommend practicing with a two-value system first and then adding a third value as you gain experience. Later in the book there are more value exercises for practicing and learning limited values.
PRINCIPLE 2: LIGHT AND SHADOW SHAPES
As you previously learned, shape is the boundary around an object or form. Shapes aren’t just on the outside of a figure; they can be seen everywhere on the body. The figure and its forms have shapes, but when there is light on a form, the shadow is also a shape. I call this the “shadow shape” or “shadow mass.”
Shadows have shape. The shapes are clearer when there is a strong, bright light source (see diagram opposite). Along with learning to see limited values, identifying shadow shapes is the first and most important skill to master when drawing from life.
PRINCIPLE 3: EDGE
Edges describe how a form in light transitions from one side or surface of the form to another. Edges can take many forms and like value there is an infinite range, from hard to soft and everything in between. To help me control edges, I first simplify and limit the edges I use to only three: hard, soft, or lost.
Hard edges communicate a rapid surface change. This can be seen in the box above as the top surface in light quickly transitions to the side plane in shadow, as a sharp corner or hard edge (A). In organic forms, hard edges don’t exist except at the contour and cast shadow.
Soft edges are slower, softer transitions. Soft edges occur on rounded, curved forms. When drawing living, organic forms such as a figure or portrait, 80 percent of the edges will be soft. This can be seen in the curve of a cylinder, as the light gradually transitions into shadow (B).
Lost edges are slow and subtle transitions. Forms that are almost flat or have very little curvature have a lost edge (C). Lost edges mostly occur in halftones and gradients.
The best way to understand edges is to study examples of edges in nature and in works of art. Before observing edges, you must first understand the anatomy of light and shadow, which is also known as the form principle.
THE FORM PRINCIPLE
The form principle is the anatomy of light and shadow. When light is on a lit object it produces a light side and a shadow side. Both sides have parts or components the artist must know and understand to begin shading.
Parts of the light:
Light: the form in full light (A)
Halftone: also known as “transition tone,” this is where the form transitions from shadow to light (B) Highlight: the form that is closest to the light (C)
Parts of the shadow:
Cast shadow: the projection of the object’s shadow onto a surface (D)
Core shadow: the border where light and shadow meet (E)
Reflected light: also known as “bounce light,” this is light from the surrounding environment that bounces (or reflects) back into the shadow (F)
Occlusion shadow: also known as “contact shadow,” this is where the form contacts a surface or another form, creating a deep, dark shadow where bounce light does not penetrate (G)
HOW TO OBSERVE SHADOW SHAPES
The first step in observing and identifying shadow shapes is to squint. Squinting helps the eye lose color and detail information and see only the value information (H). This helps the artist to better see all the values as value groups.
Next look for the border that is the terminator, or core shadow (I). The shadows are clearer if there is a strong single source light like in this example. If the light source is bright enough, the shadows are clearer. Once you clearly identify the shadow shape and its border, look to the light side and identify the brightest area (J). This is often at the part of the form that is closest to the light or has a large surface area. Below, the top of the glutes and its highlight receives and reflects the most light, making it the brightest area.
For the value variations and halftones, squint and make a decision on which values to group with the shadow and which to group with the light. In this pose, the entire left side of the figure is in shadow (K). The lights and highlights are at the glutes and the upper back, along with bright highlights in the hair (L). This leaves the large mass of the model’s back as a halftone (M).
INTRODUCTION TO THE SHADING PROCESS
Below is an example of how I use these principles when drawing the figure. This is not a fully finished drawing. This level of “finish” is an example of what can be accomplished in a ten-minute timed pose.
1. Once I have a lay-in, or foundation drawing, I define the shadow shape. To help me see the shadow shapes, I squint at the model.
2. I fill, or mass in, the shadow shape with a medium dark. This clearly separates light and shadow and establishes a two-value system.
3. I add a wash of halftones and leave the light areas. I also start to darken and soften the core shadow, which helps model and turn the form from shadow to light.
4. With the remaining time I refine my values and edges. I darken the shadows and parts of the halftones to push the contrast. I soften core shadow edges and reinforce cast shadows.
This chapter is only a brief introduction to the enormous topic of shading. There is much, much more to learn about this topic. For the purpose of this book and learning to how to draw from life, the information presented here can get you started in shading your figure drawings. Later in the book there are many examples of shaded drawings that can be copied and studied, along with other recommended exercises.