7.1. Intuition in the decisions of directors and managers

The role of intuition in the decisions of directors and managers has been studied in depth by management sciences. For example, some studies show to what extent and in which conditions directors use their intuition to take socalled “strategic” decisions [BUR 99]. Another study establishes how directors express their intuition: our intuition derives from what we sense, it is a feeling acquired over time, a decision process that does not require words, it is the way of sensing things and it is a matter of chance [ZER 11]. For others, intuition in a decision process is the “feeling of knowing for a fact… without rational reflection” [SAD 04]. Intuition plays an important part in the decisions taken by directors and managers since it is linked to the heart and consequently to emotions. Studies reveal the direct links between emotions, ways of thinking and the decision-making process [AGO 84, COG 09, DAN 07, ELI 14, SIM 87].

Dean’s research has highlighted that a director’s intuition affects the results, growth and success of his company. Based on a sample of more than 150 directors, the study has revealed that 81% of those who doubled the size of their business in 5 years were very intuitive. Furthermore, only 25% of directors who did not have a strong intuition doubled the size of their company [DEA 74]. Intuition is indeed a factor for the development and success of companies, and there is a correlation between the profile of the individual running the company and its success.

7.2. Intuition as management style

Agor’s works, which have been translated by Lebraty, have shown the contexts in which intuition is used in management situations and suggested a way of assessing intuition through gradual measurements on a scale from 0 to 12. It was possible to go on the scientific quest that involves quantifying unmeasurable phenomena because of a questionnaire sent to 3,000 managers. Therefore, the answers gathered rely on the managers’ objective as well as subjective information and perceptions [AGO 86, LEB 96, LEB 07].

A manager or director’s management style is defined by several parameters, such as trust, ability to listen, subsidiarity, communication and the freedom assigned to collaborators. A manager’s attitude is the subtle art of finding a balance between the interiority and exteriority of these five parameters. If a manager finds this balance, then they will have found the key:

• – to his self-confidence, in order to trust his collaborators;

• – to inner listening, which makes outer listening possible;
• – to the subsidiarity related to what he chooses to take care of in person and what he delegates to his collaborators;
• – to communicating with himself, which enhances the communication with his teams;
• – to the margin of freedom he authorizes and gives to his collaborators.

These five keys should be correlated to the cognitive mechanisms that may affect the use of intuition. These constitute mainly a manager’s types of mental representations [JOH 83], which are generally simplified and integrate his beliefs, his experience and the management of his emotion.

Management styles are naturally linked to the managers’ personalities. Their profiles vary as widely as the 16 types of MBTI or the nine types of the enneagram, but their differences also involve the quality of their presence and attention, their emotional balance and their degree of humaneness.

The MBTI model [CAI 03] classifies 16 personality styles, and intuition turns out to be one of the fundamental functions for four profiles, i.e. ENTP¹, ENFP, INTJ² and INFJ. It plays a secondary part for INTP, INFP, ENTJ and ENJF profiles; a tertiary part for ESTJ ESFJ, ISTP and ISFP profiles; and a minor part for ISTJ, ISFJ, ESTP and ESFP profiles.

Here are the main four intuitive profiles:

• – ENTP is a profile for whom entrepreneurship is paramount. These individuals are constantly taking up challenges, they are creative, optimistic and very good at analyzing and summarizing. They find intuitive and highly innovative solutions when adapting to changes.
• – ENFP is a profile in which one can listen to oneself and to others as well. These individuals are highly imaginative and skilled in negotiations. They favor connections within their teams and associate them with decisions that must be in line with their personal values.
• – INTJ is a charismatic profile in which one expresses one’s thoughts firmly and establishes clear objectives in line with one’s vision. These individuals have a critical sense and tend to prefer acting themselves instead of delegating.
• – INFJ is a profile in which one has the means and subtlety to obtain the support and cooperation of one’s team. These individuals, while remaining inspiring, confident and kind, pay attention to the long-term goals of their team. They are visionary and cautious, and they anticipate problems and put forward creative solutions in complex environments.

The four secondary intuitive profiles are the following:

• – INTP is a rational profile in which one establishes the operating environment of one’s team and works on making everyone respect it. These individuals are very calm and tranquil, and they can put every situation into perspective.
• – INFP is a profile in which one with a good global vision leaves significant autonomy to one’s teams. These individuals are very good at listening, they are understanding and patient, and they look for harmony and unity among their teams to achieve some general consensus.
• – ENTJ is a profile in which one supports one’s teams and respects the expression and freedom of speech of all team members. The logical way of thinking of these individuals gives them the ability to find possible shortcomings in the solutions suggested.

• – ENFJ is a profile in which one manages one’s teams in a paternalistic way. These individuals highly respect their teams, and they look for links, collaborations and consensus. This profile includes being present, attentive and responsible.

The four tertiary intuitive profiles are the following:

• – ESTJ is a profile in which one communicates directly and in a practical, coherent and effective manner by providing realistic criticism. These individuals are firm with the management and can take on unrewarding jobs. They behave very well during crises and they face their responsibilities by helping their teams.
• – ESFJ is a profile in which one acts firmly and coherently while also looking for collaboration and consensus among one’s team. These individuals are organized and precise, and they communicate by actively listening to their team. They are very good at explaining in simple terms complex processes, managing crises and supporting changes in uncertain contexts.
• – ISTP is a profile in which one asserts one’s authority over one’s teams with discretion and focuses on carrying out the group’s tasks. These individuals are precise, concise and concrete, besides communicating their ideas easily and succinctly. They can solve problems quickly and implement solutions efficiently.
• – ISFP is a profile in which one favors the teams’ cooperation and autonomy. These individuals are very good at motivating, and they can find ways of reaching their collaborators. They are cautious and able to listen attentively. They can analyze quickly and suggest effective solutions. Despite lacking flexibility during changes, they can act effectively and kindly.

The four minor intuitive profiles are the following:

• – ISTJ is a profile in which one abides by rules and regards the team as a group. These individuals communicate through logical, structured and concrete arguments based only on established facts. They are detail oriented, and at moments of change they will find classic and unoriginal solutions. They are precise in their work organization and honest, and they can respect their commitments.
• – ISFJ is a profile in which one is precise and organized in relation to one’s team. These individuals are good at motivating while remaining discreet. They know how to respect their commitments. They are good at organizing, listening and analyzing, besides being realistic.
• – ESTP is a profile in which one encourages one’s teams’ autonomy with enthusiasm and spontaneity. These individuals listen to different types of advice before taking a decision, so as to have a spirit of compromise.
• – ESFP is an understanding and warm profile in which one knows how to motivate one’s teams. These individuals have a knack for connections, interactions and natural communication, besides having a way with words. They are very spontaneous and can adapt easily. They appreciate innovation, novelty and diversity.

In the MBTI model, intuition can be found to a more or less significant degree in all 16 profiles.

Other models pitch intuition against analysis, such as the “Cognitive Style Index” [ALL 96], or intuition against rationality, like the “Rational-Experiential Inventory” model [EPS 96].

We can put forward the “3RCG” model, which distinguishes between three possible ways of dealing with intuition. A “3R”-type director or manager, namely an individual who prefers rational, rapid and reassuring solutions, does not leave any room for intuition. This is naturally a useful way of managing, which works in the different contexts where rationality is predominant.

A “3C”-type director or manager is communicative, collaborative and cooperative, leaving room for collaborators’ intuition.

A “3G”-type director or manager looks for generous, genius and galvanizing solutions, leaving room for intuition as well as the possibility for collaborators to express their intuition.

Naturally, the three types, “3R”, “3C” and “3G”, can mix, and each director or manager can find their management style depending on their context, team and personality.

Whether we are dealing with a “3R”, “3C” or “3G” manager, the actual management style also depends on the individual’s way of thinking. There are five main types of reasoning: analogical, inductive, deductive [FES 57], abductive [PEI 65] and intuitive. Analogical reasoning involves associations of ideas where connections are transposed and compared with other similar, analogous or parallel situations. Inductive reasoning is based on the observation of a particular case, which is then extrapolated. Deductive reasoning involves series of questions/answers, with the aim of finding an evident solution that “makes perfect sense”. It resorts to rationality and can count on a significant reliability that results from reasoning logic. Abductive reasoning involves looking for a solution while also looking for the cause of the problem. Consequently, the result is causally and reversibly related. Intuitive reasoning, despite not being a pure type of reasoning, is the way of thinking that questions a manager’s perception. Logically, this is the type of reasoning we favor in this work.

Naturally, these types of reasoning can complement one another and even blend when the situation requires it. A manager may quickly test the five types of reasoning (analogical, inductive, deductive, abductive, intuitive) in order to see to which extent they can prioritize one of them based on their free and personal choice.

7.3. Intuition in directors’ and managers’ communication

Directors and managers have their own ways of communicating with their teams, and they depend on their visions, ability to listen and authority. Their authority will be respected or invalidated depending on the director’s exemplary character. Support for the company’s project, which contributes to the teams’ cohesion, will depend on this meaningful exemplariness.

Which “type of listening” does intuition authorize or entail? For the four types of “-thetic” listening – apathetic, sympathetic, unsympathetic and empathetic – it is clearly sympathetic communication that favors intuition. This is a type of communication that makes it possible to express perceptions and emotions, and therefore intuitions. On the contrary, apathetic communication, which does not express any emotion, just like unsympathetic communication, leaves no room for intuition.

The communication styles that favor intuition are “non-violent communication” [ROS 03, ROS 05] and assertiveness [BOL 86, PAT 00].

Non-violent communication is a process that takes place in four steps: observing, expressing feelings, identifying needs and making a request:

• – step 1: observation makes it possible to express objectively the aspects of a situation neutrally and without judging or taking stances;

• – step 2: feelings can express emotional perceptions in a personal way and without interpretation;
• – step 3: needs derive from feelings and reflect our deep aspirations. Expressing needs is one aspect involved in the way we become aware of our relation to others, which is essential for non-violent communication;
• – step 4: the request made in a clear, precise, concise and coherent way naturally derives from the previous three steps, and it represents a type of self-evident fact rather than a demand.

In non-violent communication, intuition can be expressed during the second stage, which involves the expression of feelings and perceptions. As these are specific to each individual, they cannot be enforced. Therefore, intuition is favored by non-violent communication.

Naturally, communication is not limited to words, and nonverbal communication is as important as speaking. The nonverbal dimension supports, highlights and strengthens the verbal one in order to make the intention, message and exchanges coherent. Occasionally, non-verbal communication, our eyes, our face and our body language can be enough to communicate, without this having anything to do with a communication between mimes or a silent movie.

Assertiveness is a type of communication, behavior or attitude whose goal is direct expression through the assertion of ideas in a fair way and respecting the other. It is a communication style that, according to Vauvenargues [CLA 03], requires us to be “consistent with our ideas and flexible in form”, to which we could add that it implies a kind attitude in the way we relate. Assertiveness separates the content and the form of communication. Sensing intuition could provide precious help to communication in order to adapt the conversation and remain respectful of the other. Even if we can observe significant similarities between assertiveness and non-violent communication, the former requires us to ensure consistency and manage the gaps between what is said, what is done, what is sensed and what is thought.

Will Schutz established the “human element” model [SCH 58, SCH 06], which aims to increase self-awareness, self-esteem and self-acceptance, so that we can fulfill ourselves individually and collectively. According to the basic premise, each human being must become aware that there is a “self” that should be strengthened and developed to increase one’s self-esteem as well as self-confidence. Selfknowledge allows us to be upright and honest with ourselves and others, effectively making us more open minded. The goal of the human element is to move toward an ideal organization that takes into account individual, relational and organizational objectives. Thus, Schutz defined the FIRO model, which helps us find a person’s position in their relation to an organization, based on three dimensions of inclusion, control (or influence) and opening. Because of Schutz’s model, self-knowledge can strengthen self-esteem and therefore selfconfidence. Consequently, we will be able to trust our intuition and increase spontaneity in communication.

As we can see in this chapter, intuition plays a substantial role for directors and managers. It can be found in several behavioral models, such as the MBTI. Intuition can now play a more important part in management, and momentum is growing, as is proven by the meeting suggested for directors in the APM³ network, for young directors in the CJD⁴ network and for managers in the GERME⁵ network.