basic concepts, 3–4, 10–11

droop problems, 133

flash convertors, 130–2

noise-shaping ADCs, 148–51, 153–5

ramp integrators, 133

residual expansion, 134

serial quantizing, 132

CRCC, 259

with DAT, 307–8

EBU timecode, 350

format, 253–5

HDLC (High-level Data Link Control), 259

minimum eye pattern, 252

parity, 254

physical connectors, 252–3

professional channel status structure, 255–9

routing, 266–7

synchronization approach, 263–5

synchronizing patterns, 254

user bits/channel, 259

features and weaknesses, 3–4

noise and distortion, 3

collision avoidance, 274

Firewire, 274–5

network operation, 270–4

cell-routing mechanism, 276

connection oriented protocols, 278

container structures, 276

layer concept, 279–80

program clock reference (PCR), 281

Reed-Solomon FEC, 280

UDT (unstructured data transfer), 279

virtual channels and links, 278

see also Broadband networks

audio as data, 1–3

level metering, 45–6

as part of IT, 1–3

see also Sound

advantages, 5

binary codes, 47–52

binary words, 8–9

hexadecimal system, 47–8

most and least significant bits (MSB and LSB), 7–8

and noise, 6

octal system, 47–8

offset binary coding, 47–9

representation methods, 7

with slicing, 5–6

two’s complement system, 49–52

see also Digital logic

connectionless protocols, 278

implementation, 276–7

SDH (synchronous digital hierarchy), 276–8

SONET (synchronous optical network), 276–8

see also ATM (asynchronous transfer mode)

applications, 19–20

channel code, 386–92

control system, 402–3

disk construction, 365–6

disk manufacture process, 383–5

error-correction strategy, 393–7, 400–1

focus and tracking, 372–6

Interleaving, 393–7, 401

Karaoke system, 402

laser pickup designs, 376–8

MD comparisons, 364

operating principle, 361–2

optical features, 379–82

phase-contrast microscopy, 361

playback systems, 369–72

recording techniques, 204–6

sampling rate, 103

structure of player, 398–403

surface contamination rejection, 366–9

synchronization, 388–9

timing structure/relationships, 391–2

track structure, 393–7

WORM (write-once-read-many) disks, 361, 362–3

see also Channels/channel coding; Optical/magneto-optical recording/ playback

CD (Compact Disk), 386–92

DC-free codes/patterns, 386–7

MD (MiniDisc), 386–9 397–8

channel concept, 193–4

coding concept, 18

data separators, 213

density ratio, 214, 218

eight to fourteen modulation (EFM), 388, 390

encryption systems, 221

FM code/Manchester code/bi-phase mark code, 215–16

group codes, 218–20

jitter, 213–15

MFM (modified frequency modulation)/Miller code, 217–18

Non-Return to Zero Invert (NRZI), 215

randomizing technique, 220–1

synchronization, 221–2, 388–9

see also Transmission channels

clock jitter, 105–8, 122

and numerically locked loops (NLL), 291

program clock reference (PCR), 291–2 and voltage-controlled crystal oscillators (VCXOs), 291–2

applications, 159

basic concepts, 11–13, 18–19, 157–9

cascaded systems, 168

codec level calibration, 164–5

coding gain, 19, 168, 176

companders (compressors/expanders), 157, 168–71

crash knee/cliff-edge effect, 166–7

delay effects, 167

discrete cosine transform (DCT), 172

discrete frequency transform (DFT), 83–5, 172

entropy, 161

floating-point coding, 168–71

guidelines on usage, 167–8

Huffman code, 163

inter-block prediction, 176

inverse transforming, 176

Lempel-Ziv-Welch (LZW) lossless codes, 161

lossless (predictive) coding, 159–60, 164

lossy (perceptive) coding, 160, 161–2, 164

modified discrete cosine transform (MDCT), 172, 183–4

noise to masking ratio (NMR), 165–6

perceptive coding, 160

perceptual entropy, 166

Precision Adaptive Sub-band Coding (PASC), 321

predictive coding, 160–1

principles of compression, 160–4

quadrature mirror filtering (QMF), 173–4

quality measurement, 165–6

redundancy, 161

statistical multiplexing, 162

sub-band coding, 170, 172–4

subjectively lossless systems, 162

transform coding, 175–6

variable length coding, 163

see also MPEG Layers I, II and III, and MPEG-2 AAC

ALUs (arithmetic logic units), 60

bootstrap programs, 58

CPU (central processing unit), 59

firmware, 58

RAM and ROM, 59

software/programs, 58

basic concept, 14

by interpolation, 225

and aliasing, 94–7

alternative convertors, 134–8

anti-aliasing filters, 97

aperture effect, 108–9

decimators, 141

delta modulators, 136–7

differential convertors, 135–6

DPCM convertors, 136–7, 148–9

filter design for, 99–101

interpolators, 141

and noise, 92–3

Nyquist rate conversion, 138, 141–2

Nyquist’s theorem, 96

and oversampling, 101, 138–43

PCM convertors, 137

phase-locked loops for, 107–8

reconstruction, 98

sample and hold, 103–5

sampling clock jitter, 105–8

and sampling rate, 93–4

sampling rate choice, 101–3

sigma-delta convertors, 153–5

sigma-DPCM converter, 149

see also ADCs (analog-to-digital convertors); DACs (digital-to-analog convertors); Noise shaping; Quantizing; Quantizing error; Sampling/sampling-rate conversion

convolution codes, 228–30

convolution interleaving, 245

filters, 72–4

CD (Compact Disc), 393–7

code puncturing, 234–5

twisted-ring counter, 231–4

advantages, 294

multiple carriers and interleaving, 295–7

accuracy considerations, 127–9

clock jitter, 122

dynamic element matching, 124–7

integrated convertors, 123, 125, 128

monolithic convertors, 127

one-bit DAC, 151–3

and reconstruction filters, 128

weighted-current convertors, 127

see also Conversion/convertors

error correction strategy, 119

splice handling, 319–20

AES/EBU interface/channel status, 307–8

area divided track following (ATF), 309–11, 313–14

block diagram, 307–8

cassettes, 302–4

data channel, 311–14

editing with, 356–7

origins, 300–2

sampling rates, 103

SCMS (serial copying management system), 306

specifications and options, 306–7

tape transport mechanism, 305

track following, 309–12, 313–14

track pattern, 305–6, 313–14

dB(m), dB(W) and dB(u), 44–5

block diagram, 323

head arrangement, 321–2

Precision Adaptive Sub-band Coding (PASC), 321

tape guidance, 322–4

advantages, 9

basic concepts, 3–4, 9–11

on hard disk, 343–5

opportunities of, 9

absolute and relative, 66–7

Gray codes, 66, 68

a rotary incremental encoder, 67, 68

accumulators, 57

adders, half and full, 56

digital differentiation, 57

discrete time integrator, 57

gain control, 63–8

latches, 53–4

logic gates, 52–4

MOS RAM, 56–7

RAM, 54–7

storage elements, 52–7

see also Binary systems/signals

DSPs (digital signal processors), 70–1

facilities and operation, 68–70

peak limiting precautions, 68

typical installation, 70–1

and the MPEG transport stream, 287–9

program clock reference system, 287

time stamp, 287

see also Nicam 728

digitally dithered requantizer, 147–8

digitally generated dither, 119–22

with oversampling, 143

and quantizing error, 115–22

subtractive and non-subtractive, 116

time and frequency, 25, 72–4

see also Transforms

basilar membrane, 29

cochlea (inner ear), 27, 28–9

critical bandwidth, 34

frequency discrimination, 33–6

impulse response, 34

inter-aural delay (IAD), 30–1

inter-aural intensity difference (IID), 29

level and loudness, 31–3

masking, 34–6

mental processes, 29–31

organ of Corti, 28

ossicles, 27

pinna, 26

psychoacoustics, 26

Reissner’s membrane, 28

tensor tympani and stapedius muscles, 27–8

block boundary editing, 349

with DAT, 356–7

with disk drives, 354–6

edit decision lists (EDLs), 354–5

edit point locating, 350–4

editor structure, 349–50

from random access media, 347–8

insert editing, 356

interleave/reordering problems, 348–9

jump editing, 357–60

mastering, 347

with open-reel digital recorders, 357

punch-in, 357–8

timecodes, EBU and SMPTE, 350–1

basic concept, 14

by interpolation, 225

CD (Compact Disc), 393–7, 400–1

MD (MiniDisc), 397–8, 400–1

AES/EBU interface, 254

basic concepts, 14, 222–4

block codes, 228–30

burst errors, 14, 15

burst error problems, 245–7

by trading probabilities, 227

codewords, 227

concealment by interpolation, 225

convolution codes, 228–30

correction by erasure, 243

cross interleaving, 247

crossword codes, 228–9

cyclic redundancy check (CRC) codes, 230–5

error avoidance, 224

error bursts, 223

forward error-correction schemes (FECs), 224

interleaving, 15, 244–5, 247, 393–7, 397–8

parity, 225–7

product codes, 228–9, 245–7

Reed-Solomon codes, 235–42, 247–9, 394

symbol interleaving, 244–5

basic concept, 11–13

AES/EBU interface, 252

signal detection, 210–11

active filters, 101

anti-aliasing filters, 97

for conversion requirements, 99–101

convolution, 72–4

and delay, 71

distortion problems, 100–1

elliptic filters, 99–100

FIR (finite-impulse response) filters, 74–7

ideal ’brick wall’, 97–8

IIR (infinite-impulse response) filters, 74

and impulse response testing, 71

time and frequency domains, 72–4

and transforms, 72

and transforms and duality, 81–3

Gibb’s phenomenon, 75

arbitration procedure, 274–5

electrical interface, 275–6

strobe facilities, 276

jitter margin, 215, 218–19

run-length-limited (RLL) codes, 219, 222

CD (Compact Disc), 393–7, 401

MD (MiniDisc), 397, 401

basic concept, 15, 16

convolution interleaving, 245

cross-interleaving, 247

symbol interleaving, 244

and channel coding, 213–15

Jitter margin, 215, 218–19

and phase-locked loops, 11

sampling clock jitter, 105–8

slicing and jitter rejection, 208–13

subjectively lossless systems, 161–2

see also Compression/compressors

applications, 259–60

channel format, 261–3

frame structure, 261

routing, 267

azimuth recording, 203–4

data separation and equalization, 206–8

inductive heads, 203

inter-symbol interference (peak distortion), 203

magneto-resistive (MR) heads, 202–3, 321–2

recording heads, 198–200

rotary head recorders, 203–4

signal clocking, 211–13

signal detection, 200–1

slicing and jitter rejection, 208–13

see also DAT (digital audio tape); Magnetic/hard disk drives; Rotary head recorders

applications, 19–20

broadcast applications, 344–5

defect handling, 339–42

digital audio disk system, 342–4

disk controllers, 337–9

disk rotation aspects, 333

disk structure, 327

exchangeable pack drives, 326

flying head principle, 327–8

head matrix, 330

head moving servo system, 331–2

principles and origins, 325–7

RAID system, 340–2

reading and writing process, 328–9

rotary positioners, 335–7

sampling rate and playing time, 345

servo-surface disks, 333

soft sectoring, 333–4

thin-film heads, 329

Winchester heads/technology, 326, 329, 334–5

ATRAC coder, 397–8

block diagram, 404

CD comparisons, 364

channel code, 386–92

disk construction, 365–6

disk manufacture processes, 383–6

error detection/correction, 400–1

focus and tracking, 372–6

Interleaving, 397, 401

laser pickup designs, 376–8

magnetic field modulation technique, 363–4

playback systems, 369–72

structure of player, 398–405

surface contamination rejection, 366–9

synchronization, 388–9

track layout, 397–8

see also Channels/channel coding; optical/magneto-optical recording/ playback

masking threshold, 178

sub-band compression, 178

granule encoding, 182

MUSICAM similarities, 181

MPEG Layer III coder/decoder (MP3), 183–5

ASPEC origins, 183

MDCT usage, 183–4

applications and scope, 185–6

Huffman coding, 191

interblock prediction, 189–90

Kaiser-Bessel-derived (KBD) window, 188

lossy stage, 190–1

prediction and buffering, 167

scaleable sampling rate (SSR) profile, 186

temporal noise shaping (TNS), 189

transport streams, 290–1

application and operation, 62–3

basic concept, 13

FDM (frequency division multiplexing), 268–9

packet multiplexing, 62–3

on rotary-head recorders, 314–16

TDM (time division multiplexing), 268–9

arbitration and priority, 270–4

asynchronous operation, 269

communication aspects, 22

CSMA/CD (carrier sense multiple access with collision detect), 272–4

Ethernet, 272–4

isochronous operation, 269

multiplexing, 268–9

routing, 266–9

synchronous operation, 269

block structure, 284–5

carrier frequency, 282

companding process, 284

differentially encoded quadrature phase shift keying (DPQSK), 284

Frame Alignment Word, 284

sampling rate for, 103

system stages, 282–4

with analog audio, 3

with binary systems, 6

and conversion, 92–3

see also Signal-to-noise ratio (SNR)

ADCs for, 148–51

and additive dither, 145

basic principles, 144–5

with digitally dithered requantizing, 147–8

one-bit noise-shaping ADCs, 153–5

Philips CD players, 146–7

psychoacoustically optimal noise shaping, 148

with requantizing, 145–8

Nyquist rate conversion, 138, 141

and sampling theory, 96

Airy distribution/pattern/disk/function, 379–81

data separation and equalization, 206–8

disk construction, 365–6

disk manufacture, 383–5

Faraday effect, 205

focus and tracking, 372–6

Kerr effect, 205, 364, 372

laser pickup designs, 372–6

magneto-optical recording, 204–6

magneto-optics/thermomagneto-optics, 362–4

Mar‘Echal criterion, 381

media problems, 206

modulation transfer function (MTF), 380–1

Numerical Aperture (NA), 381–2

optical features, 379–82

Planck’s law, 369

playback systems, 369–72

signal clocking, 211–13

slicing and jitter rejection, 208–13

Sony laser head, 377–8

surface contamination rejection, 366–9

see also CDs (Compact Discs); MDs (MiniDiscs)

and anti-aliasing, 142

decimators, 141

with digital dither, 143

interpolators, 141

and noise shaping, 149

and Nyquist rate conversion, 138

and signal-to-noise ratio (SNR), 138

without noise shaping, 143–4

decode time stamp (DTS), 289–90

packet identification (PID) code, 291, 292–3

packet multiplexing, 62–3

packetized elementary stream (PES), 289

presentation time stamp (PTS), 289–90

see also Error detection/correction

basic concepts, 3–4, 93

PCM adaptors, 299–301

PCM convertors, 136–7

see also Compression/compressors

concept, 11

for convertors, 107–8

genlocking, 89

NLLs (numerically locked loops), 89–90

with signal detection, 211–13

and VCOs (voltage-controlled oscillators), 89, 211–13

Program Association Table (PAT), 293

Program Map Table (PMT), 293

basic concepts, 4, 93–4, 109–12

mid-tread quantizer, 112

quantizing intervals, 111–12

serial quantizing, 132

white-noise-dithered quantizer, 143–4

anharmonic distortion, 115

and digital dither, 120–2

and distortion, 114

and dither, 115–22

granulation, 115

noise modulation, 115

quantizing noise, 114

requantizing, 120, 145–6

and transfer function non-linearity, 115

and wordlength shortening, 120

see also Dither

reconstruction filters, 102, 128

with ATM, 280

Galois field (GF)/Galois multiplication, 237–42

generator polynomial calculations, 247–9

locators and correctors, 235

polynomial division on CD, 394

primitive element, 237

multi-channel, 314–16

operating principle, 299, 300

rotary-head digital recorders, 21

spliced tape with, 315

stationary head recorder comparison, 299

see also DAT (digital audio tape); Magnetic recording; Multi-channel rotary head recorders

see also Networks

and aliasing, 94–7

basic concept, 3, 77–81

for CDs, 103

dielectric relaxation, 104–5

fractional ratio conversion, 79

integer-ratio conversion, 78

interpolation stage, 79

oversampling/sampling convertors, 77–8, 101, 138–43

rate for PAL and NTSC, 102–3

resampling, 108–10

sample and hold, 103–5

sampling clock jitter, 105–8

sampling rate choice, 101–3

variable-ratio interpolators, 79–81

see also Conversion

equalization and data separation, 206–8

phase-locked loops, 211–13

signal clocking, 211–13

slicing and jitter rejection, 208–13

and quadrature waveforms, 39

frequency response and linearity, 36–7

intermodulation, 36–8

level and loudness, 31–3

periodic and aperiodic signals, 25–6

physics of, 23–4

sine waves, 37–9

sound pressure level (SPL), 31–2

speed of, 24

wavelength, 24

see also Audio technology; Ear

DASH format, 319–20

multi-channel rotary head recorders, 315

applications and principle, 316

block diagram, 317

DASH format, 318–20

rotary head recorder comparison, 299

MPEG Layer I coder, 178

CD (Compact Disc), 388–9

MD (MiniDisc), 388–9

AES/EBU interface, 254, 263–5

synchronous operation, networks, 269

PAL and NTSC audio, 102–3

see also Digital television audio

filters with, 72–4

hard disk approach, 61–2

shift register approach, 61

DCT (discrete cosine transform), 85–6, 172, 175–6

DFT (discrete Fourier/frequency transform), 83–5, 172

and duality, 81–3

FFT (fast Fourier transform), 178

for filters, 72

Fourier transform, 83–5

inverse transforming, 176

MDCT (modified discrete cosine transform), 172, 183–4

transform coding, 175–6

cables, 194–5

data separation and equalization, 206–8

optical fibres, 195, 263

radio, 195

slicing and jitter rejection, 208–13

characteristic impedance, 197

termination/matching, 197

digital television audio, 287–9

MPEG-2, 290–1