15.1.1 The History of Coaching in Organizations

The formal systematic study of the psychology of coaching may be tracked back to the work of Coleman R. Griffith whom in the 1920s set up the Laboratory for Research in Athletics. His seminal work was The Psychology of Coaching (1926), which focused on sports coaching. Grant (2005) noted that one of the earliest scholarly papers on workplace coaching was by Gorby (1937), who described how experienced employees coached newer employees in how to reduce waste and thereby increase company profits. This had an additional advantage of maximizing their profit-sharing bonuses. Later, humanistic psychologists such as Maslow focused on motivational influences in the well-known ‘hierarchy of needs’ (Maslow, 1968; Grant, 2007). The humanistic psychology movement influenced the early development of ‘positive psychology’ and the ‘human potential movement’, and the establishment of both scientific and eclectic pragmatic utilitarianism coaching practices (Grant, 2007), the latter having the most influence on the early development of the contemporary commercial coaching industry (Grant, 2006).

Coaching now represents a significant component of organizational learning and development offerings aimed at enhancing performance and executive development (Grant, 2006), with 63% of organizations surveyed reporting use of coaching in 2007, increasing to 71% of organizations in 2008 (CIPD, 2007, 2008). It is fast becoming an established development tool in organizations in the UK and increasingly worldwide (CIPD, 2007). Whilst coaching is not the most prevalent leadership development activity, it has been found to be among the most effective (Jarvis, 2005), with an estimated global market value of $2 billion annually (Fillery-Travis & Lane, 2006). Given the rapid growth of the industry, the focus in recent years has been on establishment of standards of practice and related guidelines for buyers, recipients and providers of coaching services (Knights & Poppleton, 2007).

15.1.2 Definitions of Coaching in Organizations

A number and variety of definitions of coaching are available (Palmer & Whybrow, 2007), a selection of which are listed here. Coaching is:

Unlocking a person’s potential to maximize their own performance. It is helping them to learn rather than teaching them (Whitmore, 2002, p. 8).

The art of facilitating the performance, learning and development of another (Downey, 1999, p. 15).

Collaborative, individualised, solution-focused, results-oriented, systematic and stretching; it fosters self-directed learning, it should be evidence based and incorporate ethical professional practice (Grant, 2007, p. 25).

The CIPD definition of coaching focuses on personal development for performance improvement linked to organizational objectives (CIPD, 2007), whilst the Association for Coaching, in its guidelines for coaching in organizations, emphasizes enabling clients by supporting their development to accelerate progress in achieving their goals (AC, 2004a).

Distinction needs to be drawn between coaching and two related activities of mentoring and counselling. Whilst coaching is typically for a set duration of time, with structured meetings focused on development and performance and on achieving specific, immediate goals (Jarvis, 2004), mentoring in contrast may see working relationships as established more informally and over a longer period of time, and be focused on career and professional development through the sharing of knowledge, advice and opportunities (Jarvis, 2004). Counselling typically takes a broader focus on longer term, historical psycho-social issues as well as performance (Jarvis, 2004). Whilst coaching is present, future and solution focused, and concentrates on the growth and development of psychologically well individuals, counselling is focused on the past, and involves reflective listening and the resolution of pathological conditions (Peltier, 2001). However, counselling and psychotherapy include a range of different approaches and some of the more recently developed approaches such as solution focused and cognitive behavioural devote much less time, if any in some clinical cases, to the past.

15.2.1 Talent Management and Leadership Development

The concept of talent management has gained in popularity and importance over the last decade, in essence bringing together all HR practices to enable organizations to define, measure and realize the talent needed to meet their business objectives (SHL People Solutions, 2007). Indeed, with the changing business context and labour market due to globalization, an ageing workforce and declining birth rates particularly in Japan and Europe (The Economist, 2006) and changing expectations of employees towards continuous learning and enhanced employability, talent management has been identified as a key strategic HR priority for organizations globally. As the baby boomer generation nears retirement, emphasis is being placed on knowledge transfer, building sufficient future leadership capability and succession planning through leadership development, coaching and mentoring.

In the UK, improving leadership development has been identified as a top HR challenge (Strack et al., 2007), recognizing that people performance is fundamental to the continued success of the business. Coaching is increasingly positioned as an integral part of an organization’s leadership development offering, enhancing an organization’s attraction and retention strategy and employee value proposition, and being an effective tool through which to align, develop and engage key leadership and high potential talent to drive achievement of business goals.

15.2.2 Organizational Development and Change Management

Continuous change in business and organizations places increasing demands on talent to lead and manage an organization to success. For these reasons strategic HR initiatives include continuous improvement, creation of learning organizations and development of coaching cultures (Clutterbuck & Megginson, 2005):

• Embedding an openness to learning and different ways of working through coaching programmes where a pool of trained internal coaches work with operational management levels to drive focus on continuous improvement to encourage a learning organization.
• Establishing coaching as a management and leadership style to increase in-house coaching capability and create a coaching culture.

15.2.3 Specific Applications

There may be specific cases whereby coaching is deemed an appropriate intervention to drive the desired development outcomes. Rather than being driven by HR strategy, these instances of coaching are more likely driven through discussion with HR, line management and the individual employee, identifying their needs and the appropriate development intervention.

Examples include individual personal and career development, well-being and stress management or team development. In the USA employee health coaching has also been used to minimize health insurance claims within companies (see Duke Prospective Health, 2008). Whilst these specific coaching interventions have been implemented for both reward and remedial purposes, caution is given against use of coaching for the latter, since this may limit acceptance of coaching and its potential application elsewhere in the organization. Research in to what makes coaching programmes successful identified the importance of coaching being perceived as developmental and not as a remedial intervention (Knights & Poppleton, 2007).

15.3.1 Positioning of Coaching within Organizations

Organizations set different levels of strategy, policy and process for coaching, depending on the purpose of coaching and the existing culture and climate determining the approach most likely to be accepted (Knights & Poppleton, 2007). Research has identified three broad levels of structure: centralized and structured; organic and emergent; and tailored middle ground (Knights & Poppleton, 2007).

Knights and Poppleton (2007) found the centralized and structured approach involved the setting of a formal strategy, an executive-sponsored launch of coaching within the organization and centrally managed coaching programmes to ensure consistent service and standards, supporting the development of a coaching culture. The organic and emergent structure referred to a more informal emergence of coaching where reputation is built through referral and coaching requirements identified on a case-by-case basis to meet local requirements. The tailored middle ground structure sees coaching managed through established learning and development relationships across the organization whilst providing a certain level of standards and thereby ensuring a consistency of service.

15.3.2 Identification of Need

The process for identifying need for coaching may differ according to the level of structure for coaching within the organization. Where there is a centralized and structured approach to coaching, it is likely that coaching requirements will be identified through talent management reviews driven by HR learning and development. It is important in these instances for there to be an objective nomination process, with clear criteria, a transparent process and full communications of what may be expected from the coaching programme and similarly what will be expected of participants. Where the coaching structure is more organic and emergent, it is likely that specific cases will be brought to the attention of HR through discussions with line managers and the employee.

15.3.3 Selection of Coaches

Coaching is cross-disciplinary, with coaches from a variety of professional backgrounds, including consulting, management, corporate, teaching, sales and psychology (Grant, 2007). Coaching in organizations may be delivered by external or internal coaches, line managers or members of the HR department (CIPD, 2007). Once a need for coaching has been identified, and the broad individual and organizational objectives understood, then the next step is to decide whether an internal or external coach will be most appropriate to achieve these goals (Trapp, 2005).

Internal coaches are most effective when the organization is looking to develop a coaching culture, when cost-efficiency is a driving factor or when knowledge of the company culture and politics is important for the success of the coaching engagement (Trapp, 2005). It is important that these coaches are effectively selected, trained and developed with access to a coaching network, continual professional development and supervision (Knights & Poppleton, 2007). The management population may take on differing levels of involvement in the coaching process, either supporting the coaching process, developing coaching skills to allow a coaching management style with team members or acting as an internal coach for others within the organization (Knights & Poppleton, 2007).

External coaches are most often engaged where there is a lack of internal resources, there is conflict of interest impacting upon confidentiality, specialized expertise or business background is required, or the coaching is for senior executives or part of a wider leadership development programme (Jarvis, 2004; Trapp, 2005; Knights & Poppleton, 2007).

Whether the coach is internal or external, there are a number of factors that should be considered, such as coach background (coaching experience, wider business or industry experience, qualifications and training, membership of professional bodies, references, case studies and testimonials), coaching methods (contracting process, tools and techniques, supervision, process for and evaluation) and fit of the coach’s interpersonal style to both the individual and the organizational culture (Jarvis, 2004; Chapman, 2006).

Consideration must also be given to the best format for the coaching engagement, whether this will be individual coaching, group coaching or facilitated peer coaching.

15.3.4 Accreditation, Training and Supervision

There are a number of recognized professional bodies relating to coaching and coaching psychology in the UK. Some of these are also international bodies. The not-for-profit bodies include:

• AC – Association for Coaching
• APECS – Association for Professional Executive Coaching and Supervision
• BPS, SGCP – British Psychological Society’ Special Group in Coaching Psychology
• CIPD – Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development
• EMCC – The European Mentoring and Coaching Council
• ICF (UK) – International Coaching Federation, UK
• SCP – Society for Coaching Psychology

The fact that there is no one leading industry body has been highlighted as creating a particular challenge for HR practitioners trying to ascertain an appropriate standard of coaching for their organization (Jarvis, 2005). However, many of these professional bodies have now produced standards frameworks, coach competency frameworks, codes of practice, guidelines for supervision, course recognition and accreditation processes (Jarvis, 2005; Wilson, 2006). In addition, National Occupational Standards do exist in the UK for workplace in-house coaching by managers and these can provide a guide for the basic competencies required. In addition, the BPS Special Group in Coaching Psychology has produced benchmark psychological standards for those practising as coaching psychologists (BPS, 2008).

Supervision may be taken in a variety of forms – individual (supervisor or peer), group supervision (led by supervisor or leaderless peer group), telephone or email/postal supervision (AC, 2005). The Association for Coaching conducted a survey of its members in 2008 to ascertain the prevalence and type of supervision taking place within the industry. Supervision was found to be more prevalent than in 2005, increasing from 48% to 72% of respondents (McDougall, 2008). The main benefits reported from supervision by coaching professionals were provision of a basis to learn and develop and a place to discuss ethical issues/concerns, whilst the main barriers were being able to find the right supervisor at the right cost (McDougall, 2008).

The top 10 competencies identified as important for the coach supervisor included ability to support and challenge, upholding ethical standards of a membership organization, taking a holistic approach, sharing knowledge of a range of coaching models and flexibility in the way support is provided, i.e. face to face or by telephone, through individual or group supervision (McDougall, 2008). Qualities included being professionally and personally mature, encouraging exploration of new ideas and techniques, maintaining consistent and appropriate boundaries, accepting and celebrating difference and clarifying the style and expectations of supervision (McDougall, 2008).

15.3.5 Contracting

Contracting with the coaching client and line manager or sponsor is an essential stage of the coaching process to ensure clearly defined expectations and measurable outcomes for evaluating return on investment at both the individual and organizational level. The majority of organizations set business as well as individual objectives for a coaching engagement, utilizing a ‘three- or four-cornered contract’ with coaching client, line manager, HR representative and coach (Knights & Poppleton, 2007), established through face-to-face meetings with the relevant parties in attendance. A typical agreement is for between four and seven sessions, most often face to face with telephone and email support (AC, 2004a).

A robust coaching contract is likely to include discussion and agreement of organization and individual objectives for the coaching, measurable outcomes, the coaching process to be followed, confidentiality and feedback to the organization (McMahon, 2005). Before undertaking a coaching engagement it is critical to agree issues relating to confidentiality and internal follow-up. For example, it may be agreed that the content of the coaching sessions is to be kept confidential in order to build and maintain trust. Participants may be encouraged or requested to share key aspects of their insights and development plans with their manager and/or HR representative. This provides accountability back to the organization, whilst maintaining the trust and confidentiality that is essential for coaching to be effective.

15.3.6 Evaluation

Evaluating coaching interventions effectively and carefully has been identified as one of the key factors for successfully embedding coaching in organizations (Bresser, 2006), yet there is doubt as to how frequently this actually takes place. A survey conducted by the Association for Coaching, found few organizations were measuring the benefits of coaching, with over 75% of respondents relying on feedback from the coaching client and line manager (AC, 2004a). Sherman and Freas (2005) observed that the interpersonal nature of coaching, which makes it so effective, is also what makes it so difficult to evaluate in quantifiable, financial measures. In practice most organizations rely on informal, immediate feedback from coaches and line managers, with only 8% of organizations following more formal and structured evaluation options (CIPD, 2008).

KirkPatrick’s model of training evaluation provides a useful framework for the evaluation of coaching, measuring immediate satisfaction through coaching client feedback, learning outcomes through self and manager report, behaviour change through pre- and post-coaching 180 or 360 questionnaires and business results through review of organizational outcome measures (KirkPatrick, 1994). Well-structured practitioner case studies can also provide an excellent evidence base for the efficacy of coaching in organizations (Lowman, 2001; Passmore & Gibbes, 2007).

In more recent years coaching psychology research has increased (Grant, 2007), both in supply and demand. The first scholarly paper was published in 1955, with a noticeable increase in both articles and research chapters from 1996 onwards (Grant, 2006). Kampa-Kokesch and Anderson (2001) found that just seven articles focusing on the evaluation of executive coaching were published prior to 2001, whilst Passmore and Gibbes (2007) found a further 13 papers were published between 2001 and 2007. Grant identified 78 empirical studies relating to coaching since 1955 (67 of which have been published since 2001) and 314 articles (Grant, 2006).

Although the industry is relatively young, there is now a growing body of empirical research in support of its efficacy (Grant, 2006; Passmore & Gibbes, 2007), and an increasing collaboration amongst coaching academics and practitioners of varying backgrounds (Grant, 2007) with the shared aim of advancing a ‘vibrant and diverse professional coaching industry’ (Grant, 2007, p. 25).

Coaching is reported to have significant and widespread positive effects across surveys conducted by professional bodies and both academic and practitioner research. The AC survey indicated that managers identified better people management skills and increased levels of motivation, whilst coaching clients reported improved work–life balance and increased levels of motivation (AC, 2004a). Academic research papers report benefits of increased leadership behaviours (Kampa-Kokesch & Anderson, 2001; Cortvriend et al., 2008), improved performance (Smither & London, 2003; Cortvriend et al., 2008), increased collaborative work behaviours (Gonzalez, 2004), increased self-efficacy (Evers et al., 2006) reduction of workplace stress (Gyllensten & Palmer, 2005) and significant return on investment (McGovern et al., 2001). The reader is referred to Kampa-Kokesch and Anderson (2001) and Passmore and Gibbes (2007) for comprehensive reviews of this research.

From an organization perspective, coaching has again been reviewed positively. A group survey conducted through structured interviews of 17 HR practitioners reported moderate to good success of previous coaching programmes, and an indicated intention to use coaching in the future (Dagley, 2006). The two most common barriers to coaching were executives making time for coaching sessions, and the cost, although benefits were reported to exceed costs (Dagley, 2006).

15.4.1 Performance Coaching, Transitional Coaching and Transformational Coaching

Performance coaching focuses on improving performance against current objectives, building on behavioural strengths and actioning development opportunities or acquiring new skills or capabilities.

Transitional coaching focuses on equipping individuals and teams to move through the ‘transition’ curve more skilfully. Example topics might be determining a career move or change of direction, supporting a new executive during their first 100 days in a new organization, a senior manager taking on a very different role, location, project, or leading a strategically important change.

Transformational coaching is designed to help individuals achieve breakthrough performance by fundamentally changing how they are behaving and how they see and think about themselves. A breakthrough would be something that currently appears impossible. However, unlike other forms of coaching, transformational coaching is often about ‘being’ and not just about ‘doing’ so goes beyond the usual focus on enhancing productivity.

15.4.2 Leadership Pipeline

Each type of coaching will have its place and application at different levels within the organization as employees progress through the ‘leadership pipeline’ (Charan, Drotter & Noel, 2001).

The ‘leadership pipeline’ is a concept popularized by Charan and associates (2001), and gives recognition to a number of key transition points for individuals to work their way up to the most senior role in an organization. These can be summarized against three broad levels:

• _Managing self.
• Managing others – managing others and managing managers.
• Managing the business – functional manager, business manager, group manager and enterprise manager.

At each transition point a different set of role objectives, key result areas, expected behaviours and management and leadership styles are expected and required for success in the role. Openness to learning and learning agility is crucial, as what has made individuals successful in the past may not be what will make them successful in the future (Eichinger & Lombardo, 2004). Performance is evaluated differently requiring a shift in both behaviour and mindset on the part of the individual. Coaching may be instrumental in helping the individual to focus on optimizing performance in role, preparing for promotion or evolving through the transition period, with different types of coaching and coaching programmes being relevant at each level in the pipeline, for example:

• Managing self – performance coaching for graduates and high potentials.
• Managing others – middle management and leadership development.
• Managing the business – executive coaching, business coaching and mentoring.

15.4.3 Coaching Models and Tools

A wide variety of coaching models and tools are available, derived from a number of well-respected theoretical traditions including solution focused, person-centred, psychodynamic, cognitive behavioural, sports psychology, systems thinking, positive psychology and strengths, Gestalt, neurolinguistic programming and existential coaching (Peltier, 2001; Palmer & Whybrow, 2008). The most appropriate approach may be determined based on consideration of the business context and organizational objectives, individual coaching client’s needs and skills of the coach.

Whybrow and Palmer (2006) conducted two surveys 23 months apart looking at the types of coaching methodologies used by coaching psychologists and found the most common coaching psychology practices across both surveys were business, executive, leadership and performance, followed by career and personal life coaching. Both surveys showed popular psychological frameworks and approaches to be facilitation, cognitive, behavioural, goal-focused and solution-focused approaches (Whybrow & Palmer, 2006).

15.4.4 Leadership Models

A number of leadership models are available stemming from both academic and applied research. Leadership models may provide the basis for organizational goals and a language with which to communicate objectives and desired outcomes at the contracting stage of coaching, providing the link between an individual’s personal development and an organization’s needs and expectations of its management and leadership population. It may also be contracted that feedback from the organization will be collected for the coaching client against this model of leadership, to feed in to the coaching engagement, through tools such as 360-degree feedback questionnaires. Many organizations have developed their own leadership models in the form of competency-based and values-based frameworks.

One example is the SHL corporate leadership model (Bartram, 2002, 2005) (see Table 15.1), which combines both transactional and transformational leadership dimensions with four functions of the leadership cycle, and the associated behaviours with each, forming the SHL great eight competency factors (Kurz & Bartram, 2002). The competency framework that sits behind the leadership model is known as the SHL universal competency framework (UCF). Translated into 11 different languages, the great eight factors of the UCF divide into 20 dimensions of competency comprising 112 components (Bartram, 2002, 2005).

The SHL UCF was developed through a five-year, in-depth study of research on job performance and employee and leadership behaviour. Validation of the great eight factors included a meta-analysis of 29 validation studies comparing measures of potential (ability, personality) of 4861 managers and leaders to the line managers’ rating of performance against the great eight factors, finding moderate to good relationships between both personality and ability and the great eight, and even stronger predictive power through a combination of the two (Bartram, 2004).

15.4.5 The GROW Model

The GROW model, developed by Graham Alexander and promoted by Sir John Whitmore (Whitmore, 1992, 2004; Alexander & Renshaw, 2005), is well established and used internationally, particularly in a performance coaching context. In essence, the GROW model is used to structure the coaching conversation exploring the goal for the session, the current reality, options available and the will of the coaching client to commit to action.

The following summarizes key facilitative questions at each step:

• Goal – What is your overall goal, and your goal for the coaching session?
• Reality – What has happened so far?
• Options – What choices are there to help move towards achievement of the goal?
• Will – What will you commit to, specified through SMART objectives and a written action plan?

The GROW model, with its simplicity and accessibility, is instrumental in equipping line managers as coaches, building internal coaching capability and developing a coaching culture within the organization.

15.4.6 The PRACTICE Model

PRACTICE is an acronym for a problem solving and solution focused model that has been used within coaching, counselling, psychotherapy and stress management (Palmer, 2007, 2008). The model may be used by the coach to facilitate the coaching client to identify the Problem or issue concerned, develop Realistic goals, generate Alternative solutions and Consider, Target and Implement the Chosen solutions and Evaluate outcomes. Table 15.2 provides details of each sequential step.

15.4.7 The ABCDEF Model

The ABCDEF psychological model of coaching (Ellis et al., 1997; Neenan & Dryden, 2002; Palmer, 2002) taken from the rational emotive behaviour (REB) approach, focuses on the identification of Activating events or a general Awareness of a problem or issue, then elicitation of the associated unhelpful, performance-interfering Beliefs and the subsequent Consequences/responses to the issue concerned, before Discussion/ Disputing/challenging those beliefs. Then an alternative, more Effective response is chosen. Finally there is a discussion about what has been learnt that will be helpful to the coachee in the Future (see Palmer & Szymanska, 2007). It is worth noting that in the UK, the REB approach and the PRACTICE model have been integrated within a general cognitive behavioural coaching approach (Palmer, 2009).

The coach facilitates discussion flexibly around the model according to the need of the individual and the appropriateness to the coaching conversation, emphasizing the importance of how unhelpful beliefs can impact upon behaviour, performance and feelings. Through discussion these beliefs can be modified to enhance performance and reduce stress.

15.4.8 Assessment Tools and Psychometrics in Coaching

Assessment has an important role to play in coaching and executive coaching (Peltier, 2001) to allow individual and organizational goals to be established (McLeod, 2003) and to ensure structured, constructive feedback is provided to compliment the individual’s own self-awareness and insights (Peltier, 2001).

A clear measure of current performance and potential may be obtained through use of a range of diagnostic tools and simulation exercises, psychometric tests and questionnaires, simulation exercises and 360-degree feedback. Potential measures include personality (fit of preferred style to the role requirements or competencies), motivation, cognitive ability, values and attitudes (Bartram, 2004). Performance measures tend to focus on assessment of behaviours and competencies through measures such as assessment/development centre simulations (group exercises, analysis presentations and role-plays), interviews or 360-degree feedback questionnaires (Bartram, 2004).

Psychometric measures come in two forms: those measuring ability and those measuring personality (Rust, 2004). There are four underlying psychometric principles that govern the quality of the psychometric instrument – reliability, validity, freedom from bias and standardization (Peltier, 2001; Rust, 2004). Whilst the instrument must first meet these four principles, the true value of the assessment will come through a validation interview or discussion with the individual (McDowall & Kurz, 2007). In the UK the British Psychological Society requires a minimum standard of training to be able to administer, evaluate and feedback psychometric instruments (BPS, 2006; McDowall & Kurz, 2007).

A range of personality questionnaires are available, including both ‘type’ and ‘trait’ questionnaires, for example the Myers Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI), 16PF and the Occupational Personality Questionnaire (OPQ) (see Passmore, 2008 for details of a full range of psychometrics in coaching).

The SHL Occupational Personality Questionnaire (OPQ) was specifically designed for the world of work, and provides insight into 32 dimensions of personality across three domains of relationships with people, thinking styles and feelings and emotions (Burke, 2008). The OPQ can be used to inform coaching conversations around the individual’s preferred style of working, and how this preferred style acts as an enabler or barrier to higher levels of performance. As such it is an indicator of competency potential (Burke, 2008).

The Myers Briggs Type Indicator is a frequently used psychometric tool within coaching, developed by Katharine Briggs and her daughter Isabel Briggs Myers based on Carl Jung’s theory of psychological type (Carr et al., 2008). The MBTI emphasizes the benefits of diversity by providing positive descriptions of personality through four pairs of opposites: extraversion and introversion; sensing and intuition; thinking and feeling; and judging and perceiving (Carr et al., 2008). The theoretical assumption is that an individual is predisposed to use one side of each pair of opposites more naturally, and in receiving feedback on their preferred style may make informed choices about their own behaviour, and also understand how others prefer to operate (Carr et al., 2008).

Motivation is ‘the driving force behind job success. It determines how much energy will be channelled into job performance, for how long, and under what circumstances effort will be maintained’ (Bartram, Fradera &Marsh, 2008, p. 116). The SHL Motivation Questionnaire (MQ) ‘is concerned with assessment of individual differences in the factors that energise, direct and sustain behaviour in the workplace’ (Bartram et al., 2008, p. 119). The MQ provides insight into 18 dimensions of motivation and de-motivation, clustered into four domains of energy and dynamism, synergy, intrinsic, and extrinsic.

360-degree feedback questionnaires are typically competency based and provide a valuable measure of performance and an insight for individuals on how they are perceived to behave in their current role. 360-degree feedback is a widely accepted practice within organizations (Peltier, 2001; Knights & Poppleton, 2007) and typically involves collection of feedback for development purposes from self, colleagues, line managers and others, often against a 1–5 rating scale ranging from ‘outstanding’ to ‘clear development’, or from ‘consistently demonstrated’ to ‘rarely demonstrated’.

15.4.9 Recurrent Coaching Themes in Organizations

Across the literature there are a number of recurring themes that form popular coaching topics within organizations, such as presentation skills (see Palmer & Szymanska, 2007), interpersonal and social skills (see Palmer & Cooper, 2007), assertiveness coaching (see Neenan & Dryden, 2002), time management and delegation (see Neenan & Dryden, 2002), self-confidence (see Wilding & Palmer, 2006) and stress management (see Palmer & Cooper, 2007). These topics may be effectively coached through individual or group coaching.

15.5.1 Specific Application: Performance Coaching

The coaching client came to the contracting session with the goal of finishing a research paper for an impending presentation. She had been procrastinating, putting off completing the paper for fear of not doing a good job, and feeling increasingly nervous and fearful at the prospect of presenting her work. This, she realized, linked to her increasingly frequent and severe tension headaches. She explained that past presentations had not gone well and so she worried she would fail at this one too.

Cognitive behavioural coaching methods were used to explore a past presentation that had not gone to plan. Having captured the essence of the situation, the coaching client identified the elements of the situation, her behaviours, cognitions and emotions that had caused her the most difficulty at the time. Through the iterative process she was able to challenge unhelpful beliefs and assumptions, take a new perspective and generate alternative ways of thinking, feeling and behaving.

The client felt renewed energy to complete her research paper and enjoyment at the prospect of giving the presentation. Keeping a reflective journal to track her progress, she described how the cognitive behavioural tools helped raise her self-awareness, meaning that where she was previously stuck, she had now propelled herself forward with a great sense of empowerment and confidence to achieve her goals.

15.5.2 Organizational Change and Change Management

SHL was invited to complete an executive coaching programme at a leading telecommunications company. The coaching was delivered to sales directors to help facilitate a major strategic change in direction.

The organization was striving for a fundamental shift in the way its sales force operated. It needed to move away from a simple transactional sell, to a much more consultative approach. This in turn required a different set of skills and a new approach from the sales people.

Following clarification of the sales competencies and objective assessments of the sales directors, a programme of executive coaching was proposed. Focused on the individual’s needs, career development and aspirations, these sessions provided necessary time away from the day to day, creating opportunities for self-examination and personal development planning (SHL, 2004a).

15.5.3 Talent Management and Leadership Development

The organization, a leader in the fast-moving consumer goods sector, was seeking to accelerate its business performance within its market sector and understood that investment in the personal development of those at the top of the business, developing their ability to drive success, was critical in achieving this. The senior leaders were each offered six individual coaching sessions with an executive coach from SHL.

The coaching engagements started with initial assessment and feedback of motivations, preferences and competency-based behavioural strengths and development needs. An example outcome of coaching for one individual was the ability to redefine his role within the organization in order to incorporate the objectives he wanted to achieve, whilst enhancing the value he provided to the organization and its business goals (SHL, 2004b).

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