CHAPTER 1
The Basics
It’s true that, in its most basic definition, ceramic tile is a slab of clay cut into a shape and used as a means of decorating and protecting a surface. However, tile can also be a window through which we can glimpse our own history.
I admit that when I first started making tile, I didn’t have a clear understanding of which lens to view it through. Although I encountered tile on a daily basis, it was rarely something I noticed. I soon found that if you pay attention, you will see that tile can tell a story. First you must understand the language of tile to understand what it has to share.
In this chapter, we'll take a brief look at tile’s history, we’ll learn key terminology that will be important throughout the book, and we’ll also examine a few key types of tile as well as a handful of common setting styles. Though it’s impossible to provide a complete crash course in the history of tile, my hope is that this chapter will begin to change your perspective, so you, too, will fall in love with this unique medium.
Tile Throughout History
Fired clay is one of the oldest and most enduring manufactured materials on earth; it bares record of the time and place that it was created. In many parts of the world, tile is the most lasting documentation of the people and places in which it is found. The cultural shifts, the commercial and social influences, and the hands in which it was created (and used) are forever ingrained upon its surface. Tile is unique even within the history of ceramics, as its durability and commodification ensure its lasting mark upon and from the history of humanity. Tile alone is the single greatest user of the world’s clay resources, and because of this it is both revered and overlooked as a design material.
Topkapi Palace, Istanbul, Turkey.
TILE BEFORE THE EARLY TWENTIETH CENTURY
Because of the durability and the relative ease in which ceramic tile is produced, it was used like a skin to cover and protect the sacred buildings of the world’s oldest civilizations. As religions evolved, and texts faded and were rewritten, tile is often the most lasting record of the people who came before. Some of the oldest examples of tile are glazed brick from the Pre-Iranian, Elamite civilization circa the third millennium BCE. These brick tiles were used to construct ziggurats and record the legacies of the rulers who had constructed them.
Tile detail from the palace and fortress complex of Alhambra, Granada, Spain.
Tile detail from Iznik, Turkey.
Exquisite example of mosaic work, Hagia Sophia, Istanbul.
This incredible example of ancient glazed brick is inscribed with the words of the king who used them to construct the ziggurat which they form. It is seen as both a religious and architectural monument from the time in which it was built.
As more enduring and lasting ceramic wares developed, so did the glazed brick and ceramic tile that was used as an architectural and aesthetic material surpassing the strength and beauty of common earthen brick. One of the most famous examples of ancient ceramic brick tile is the Ishtar Gate commissioned by King Nebuchadnezzar II. Constructed in approximately 575 BCE, the immense Ishtar Gate was the eighth gate of the inner city of Babylon. It was skinned in glazed brick meant to mimic the coveted lapis lazuli, with bas-relief animals and flowers glazed with golden earth tones representing Babylonian gods and goddesses. The Ishtar Gate, being part of the Walls of Babylon, was one of the original Seven Wonders of the World. As its cedar beams and earthen walls crumbled, the ceramic endured. In the photo opposite, you can see how it was reconstructed in the twentieth century. It is now housed in Berlin’s Pergamon Museum.
As ceramic technology developed, we began seeing the inconceivably beautiful glazed brick and mosaic tile work that became synonymous with Islamic architecture beginning around the twelfth century. There is no substitute for the scrolling Kufic calligraphy and mind-bending geometric patterns on tile that arose from this period, adorning the great mosques and palaces of the time. We owe a great debt of gratitude to the dedication and elevation of ceramic tile of the Islamic world, as it heralded a global fascination with tile that spread across Northern Africa and into Europe through the Iberian Peninsula, and even into East Asia through both land and sea. As Moorish influence brought techniques such as zellige and cuerda seca across the region, they defined an aesthetic that is still a part of daily life in areas of Spain, Italy, and beyond.
From here began the golden age of tile, starting with porcelain and underglaze influences from Chinese trade along the Silk Road. Iznik, a city in Northern Turkey, went from a thriving earthenware pottery center to one of the most influential regions in the history of ceramics. The world experienced the unimaginable crossroads of East and West as the European thirst for Chinese porcelain paired with the Islamic aesthetic and development of underglazed fritware and tile. The deft hand of the Iznik painters combined the best of Chinese floral motifs with unique interpretations of Persian girih tessellations and mosaic to create electrifyingly vivid tile that adorns the palaces and mosques throughout the region to this day.
Forging its place at the top in the vast lexicon of architectural adornments, ceramic tile has become commonplace in virtually every part of the world. Each region now has its own tile history: from the maiolica in-glaze that defines the tile traditions of Spain and Italy, to faience tile in France, and of course Delft tile of the Netherlands with its omnipresent Dutch country scenes directly reminiscent of Chinese blue and white wares. Then there is the tile of the Americas, including the Mexican tile so popular in Southwestern architecture as well as the tile powerhouses that arose during the industrial revolution, including the American Encaustic Tiling Company of Zanesville, Ohio (once the largest tile company in the world) and the Moravian Pottery and Tile Works of Doylestown, Pennsylvania (founded by one of my personal tile heroes, Henry Chapmen Mercer).
Detail of the Ishtar Gate.
CONTEMPORARY HANDMADE TILE
Now that you have some understanding of the rich history of tile, imagine adding the technological and scientific advancements of the last one hundred years to the picture. Ceramic engineering, as well as affordable and accessible fossil fuels, technological advancements in kilns, more robust mining practices, and the ability to source information from across the world at the push of a button have all played a key role in the growth of the tile industry. There are very few limitations, and yet somehow at times it seems like the world of commercial tile has become somewhat stiff. Mass production, though tremendously beneficial for the development of cheaper and more durable tile, often sacrifices aesthetic. It often takes for granted the true potential of the medium.
Although there is no substitute for the unique qualities and tactile nature of handmade tile, many makers today employ modern practices to achieve higher output levels in order to remain competitive in a field dominated by industry. These practices, coupled with a constant eye on aesthetics, and awareness of history and historic practices, can create the perfect marriage of artist and producer.
Like vessel makers, those who make tile by hand can fall into a few categories. I categorize them as “architectural tile makers,” “tile muralists,” and a third category I call “tile artists.” These three categories can overlap and do share some similarities—and many who make tile do all three—but for the sake of conversation I find it easiest to speak about them this way.
Peter Pincus, A Familiar Kind of Riddle, slip-cast porcelain tile. Photos courtesy of the artist.
• Someone who makes modular tile designed to be used functionally makes architectural tile. This type of tile is meant to be used to protect as well as beautify a space. Architectural tile makers often sell tile by the square foot rather than by the installation. Although primarily made by hand, these tile makers can also employ the use of machinery. Those who make architectural tile usually have a method for making tile en masse, producing hundreds, even thousands, of tiles that are similar in appearance and made for covering and protecting specific areas. (I could be considered someone who makes architectural tile.)
• Tile muralists primarily make permanent, project-based work that is different from location to location and has a certain theme. The work is like a permanent painting made with tile. A muralist would not fulfill an order by the individual piece or by the square foot, but by the whole project. Mosaic artists are muralists. Muralists often work within the public art spectrum.
• Tile artists are not always bound to the medium. They use tile as a means to an end within a single piece of artwork that could illustrate something completely outside the realm of tile itself. Here the object stands alone and can often be impermanent or unaffixed, like a piece of sculpture or a painting. A tile artist has free reign with the medium, with the only thing holding them to the category of tile at all being the tile itself. Jim Melchert, Robert Sperry, Kala Stein, Jason Green, and Jim Bachor are just a few examples of tile artists.
Collete Crutcher and Aileen Barr, Moraga Steps, San Francisco, CA, USA.
Understanding Tile
Ceramic tile encompasses a broad spectrum, from a covering in a subway that’s designed to keep it sanitary to a one-off handmade accent tile or coaster. As a potter, I developed the mindset that industry is competition. However, over time I’ve grown comfortable with the idea that handmade and industrially made pots and tile can coexist synergistically. For example, in 1974 Kohler developed an artist-in-residence program where artist participants integrate with Kohler staff and technology and are encouraged to develop new ways of thinking and making. Similarly, the European Ceramic Workcentre in the Netherlands invites artists, designers, architects, and technicians to work side by side, share ideas, and grow new understandings of the medium.
In the field, many designers I work with will often use industrial tile to maintain affordability and consistency for their clients throughout a project, and then use handmade tile to bring a more personal feel, adding character and context to a job. As a tile maker, I welcome this crossover as it allows me to see my tile in a greater context and understand its use better. Let’s explore this intersection.
INDUSTRY VS. HANDMADE
There used to be a time when a machine-made object, or even a machine itself, was thought of as a novelty. We fantasized about a romantic future when Jetsons-style automatons would serve us dinner, and we would communicate by simply speaking into a picture box. Now we depend on machinery for virtually everything, even building more machinery. All day long we work from behind a desk depending on computers and machines to provide consistent results down to the millionth of an inch, and then we come home exhausted from staring at a box all day. We remind ourselves how important it is to get our hands dirty by toiling in the kitchen, gardening, taking hikes, or even taking a pottery class at the local community studio. We crave narrative. An object’s visual history reminds us of our actual history; it makes us feel whole. Our acute appreciation for objects with flaws and eccentricities arises out of a desire for the things we can no longer have enough of: things that are rare and things made by hand. We take in and elevate these handmade objects because they tell us a story rather than provide us with answers.
As this book progresses, you will see references to industry and production methods that are favored by certain tile makers. With tile, the term “handmade” can have a relatively loose connotation, and you will notice that at times the line between mass-produced and handmade tile may blur to some degree. We will explore a number of ways that you can make tile by hand, and even include equipment to make your life easier while still staying within the realm of the handmade.
Industrial tile production.
I consider handmade tile to be any tile that is either primarily formed or decorated by hand. Many of the tiles in this book are made from methods that purists might consider suspect; artists use machines to form the tile, and yet they may decorate, cut, sand, load and unload it from the kiln, fire it, and pack it by hand. They touch each and every tile, and when you see the final product, there is no question that even with the aid of computers and machines, it is truly handmade.
This book is not meant to be a purist’s approach to handmade tile, but one that I hope will encourage you to experiment with different methods that may benefit your level of production—wherever that may lie. From a single backsplash in your own home to owning a small business that depends on machinery to stay competitive, my goal here is to present a broad view of what it can mean to make handmade tile and to give you permission to play and experiment with it.
Spahn & Bontekoe residence in Berkeley, California. House skinned with 4’ × 4' (122 × 122 cm) nouovo corso tile manufactured in Italy. Ajay Manthripragada, architect.
NOMENCLATURE
There are a few important terms and phrases you should know before launching into making or setting your own tile. Even after a lifetime of working with clay, when I first jumped into making tile I found myself unprepared to speak about my own work within the greater context of the field. This left me at a detriment when speaking with designers and tile setters. For this reason, I want to quickly lay out some words and phrases that might be helpful for you when making, installing, marketing, and speaking about your own tile.
Accent tile: Tile that is often decorative or different and used as an accent within an installation.
Base layer or backing: Any base material over which tile is meant to be installed. Common names are cement board, HardieBacker, and cementitious layer.
Bullnose tile: Tile with a finished edge that is meant to be exposed.
Buttering or back buttering: Spreading an adhesive coat to the back of a tile prior to setting rather than setting the tile in the adhesive.
Caulking: A water-resistant sealing material (usually silicone) designed for filling grout lines when water resistance is paramount, such as in showers.
Ceramic tile: This category describes tile that is more durable than terra-cotta tile, yet less than porcelain tile. Ceramic tile is a cousin to porcelain tile, but it has an absorption rate greater than 0.5 percent.
Cure/cured/curing: The time in which an adhesive or sealant must be left undisturbed to be considered usable and at full strength.
Epoxy: A two-part adhesive that consists of a bonding resin and hardening catalyst. Epoxy is time sensitive, and the two parts must be mixed together to be activated.
Epoxy grout: A two-part (or three-part) grout that consists of an epoxy resin and hardening catalyst. Epoxy grout is time sensitive, and the two parts must be mixed together to be activated.
Field tile: The primary covering tile in an installation. Often blank tile.
Float: There are a few types of floats. A tile float is a rubber rectangular tool (about 3" × 10" [7.5 × 25.5 cm]) with a handle used to push grout into grout lines. A cement float (or bull float) is a long-handled tool with a large flat metal piece on the end used to smooth out concrete after it is poured.
Floating: A method of laying tile without attaching it to the subfloor; the tile is literally attached to itself only. This is also the term used for smoothing and finishing a concrete surface.
Floor tile: A tile that can withstand floor traffic and has enough traction to minimize slip and fall concerns.
Glazed tile: Tile that has a glazed face. Glaze is used to protect and beautify tile.
Grout: A cement-like material used for filling joints between tile. It keeps tile bonded together and makes an entire surface act like one whole object rather than multiple pieces.
Impervious: Tile that does not absorb moisture. It is fully vitrified.
Notched trowel: A grooved or notched trowel used for applying mortar.
Pointer: A small handheld spatula type tool for applying mortar and cement.
Porcelain tile: This is the most durable and impervious tile available. It has a water absorption rate of 0.5 percent or less. Porcelain tile is fine grained, fully vitrified, and is usually dry pressed by machine.
Quarry tile: Large, machine-made, and unglazed ceramic floor tile that is more than 6" (15 cm).
Setting tile: Adhering the tile to a surface with the use of tile mortar or adhesive.
Spacers: Rubber inserts designed to evenly space individual tiles from one another to form a consistent grout line when setting tile.
Substrate: A subfloor material such as plywood or cement board used as backing beneath or behind tile. It is often used in a different context to describe blank fired tile prior to decorating.
Terra-cotta tile: Tile made from earthenware clay (usually red), unvitrified, and not fully impervious to moisture. Terra-cotta is the least durable of the three categories of tile.
Tile: For the sake of this book, tile is a modular piece of fired clay used to protect and beautify surfaces such as floors, walls, showers, roofs, and walkways. In a larger construct, tile can also refer to cement, and metal tile, etc.
Tile adhesive: Any standard adhesive used for adhering tile to surfaces. Thinset, mastic, and mortar are also common names for tile adhesive. This is sometimes referred to as butter or mud.
Tile sealer: A protective liquid applied to finished tile that guards it from exposure and staining, as well as penetration from other materials. It's used to extend the life of the tile.
Trim: Various types of tile used for exposed edges and molding.
Unglazed tile: Tile that has an unglazed surface.
Vitrified (vitrification): Vitrified tile has been fired to a temperature sufficient to form a glassy matrix within the clay that has fully bonded so that it is impervious to penetration by liquids. “Fully vitrified” (often referred to as impervious) tile has an absorption rate of 0.5 percent or less.
Types of Tile
Most tile is broadly categorized into three different types: terra-cotta tile, ceramic tile, and porcelain tile. As someone who studied ceramics and works with clay as a potter, these descriptions drive me crazy! My understanding of the term “ceramic” is that it is the family that encompasses all types of clay, therefore porcelain, ceramic, and terra-cotta tile should all fall under one heading—ceramic tile.
The tile industry separates porcelain, ceramic, and terra-cotta based simply on the levels of vitrification, absorption, and durability within the tile itself. Porcelain tile has the highest density and is the least absorbent (0.5 percent or less), followed by ceramic tile, and finally terra-cotta as the softest and most absorbent of all three. The problem here, as you can imagine, is that when someone asks whether you make porcelain tile, they aren’t actually asking whether your tile is simply made from porcelain, but if it is completely vitrified. Porcelain is a clay type, and it can be vitrified or not. When someone uses porcelain, it doesn’t ensure that it is a durable tile. Yet, in the tile industry, porcelain is a categorization of density rather than a clay type. This misnomer is unique to the tile industry and can cause great confusion because no matter the clay, one tile can be mixed, made, or fired in a way that may make it either more or less absorbent or dense than the other.
Different examples of tile setting styles.
Square.
Square half-bond.
Hexagonal.
Random staggered.
Subway brick.
Ladder.
Subway stack-bond.
Herringbone.
Diagonal basketweave.
Square basketweave.
Basketweave.
Herringbone staggered.
Although industry speak is important to understand, as this is a book primarily about handmade tile, I will categorize each tile relative to the clay it is made from; porcelain tile is made of porcelainous clay, stoneware tile is made from stoneware clay, and terra-cotta tile is made from terra-cotta or earthenware.
Aside from the specific clay your tile is made from, you should also be able to determine whether it is going to be used as field tile, accent tile, or ornamental tile. On the following pages, we’ll briefly discuss each type.
191st Street Subway, New York City, USA.
FIELD TILE
Field tile is the name for any tile that’s used to cover most of the square footage within an installation. Field tile does not refer to a production method; rather, field tile simply means it is the dominant tile used for a particular space.
Field tile on a large installation is often industrially made, as it’s the cheapest way to provide consistent, sanitary surface covering. Subway tile is a good example. The idea for the subway tile seen in many homes today comes from actual subways. Generally, for this type of tile, aesthetics takes a backseat. The most important attribute is durability and often the ease with which it can be cleaned. Whether it’s spilled drinks, or something worse, subway tile needs to stand up to daily wear and tear.
For these reasons, other places you might encounter field tile include restaurants, lobbies, hotel bathrooms, and so on. Though you probably can’t make handmade tile for something such as a subway system, with literally tens of thousands of square feet, you can use handmade tile as field tile in other applications. Usually, it’s affordability and not durability that keeps some customers from choosing handmade tile.
Aileen Barr, Lincoln Park steps, San Francisco, USA.
ACCENT TILE
Accent tile is exactly as it sounds: It enhances or accents an installation dominated by field tile. This type of tile is designed to catch the eye: for this reason, it is often handmade or hand-painted (glazed). These tiles can be a statement piece, such as a cornerstone (which is also architectural tile, see next section).
When it comes to patterned tile, you can see how accent tile may become field tile. The main difference would be whether it is the dominant tile in an installation. I often try to avoid the term when I’m selling tile, because accent tile could become field tile. Calling your own tile “accent tile” may imply that it cannot be used as field tile when that is not the case, and it may cut down on the quantity of tile one might be willing to purchase for their project.
I would also add that trim tile (or tile molding) can be a subsection of accent tile. Just as it sounds, trim is tile used to act as a border to a tile installation, and it doesn’t fit the standard shape or format of the main tile in an installation. Trim tile can include but is not limited to: bullnose, outcorner, incorner, quarter round, half round, cove, cove base, square cap, and more. Though most who make handmade tile don’t offer all types of trim, many offer some types to round out their selection.
Tiled stairs, Marrakech, Morocco.
Delft tile with girl jumping rope, Netherlands.
Tin-glazed Delft tiles, Netherlands.
ARCHITECTURAL TERRA-COTTA
Sometimes referred to as architectural tile, architectural terra-cotta, is generally used on exterior surfaces as a protection against the elements, and to benefit the aesthetic of a building's architecture. As its name implies, it can be quite functional, but the ornamentation that derives from this type of ceramic can also be purely aesthetically driven as well. Different types of brickwork, roof tile, hollow three-dimensional forms, and even gargoyles, downspouts, and other architectural statuary might be considered an architectural form of tile. Architectural terra-cotta is not the focus of this book, but it is important to discuss it briefly and draw attention to how it has inspired tile artists, and how it shares some characteristics with and is also different from the tile discussed in the following chapters.
The earliest types of architectural terra-cotta were found in Chinese, Indian, and Islamic architecture in the form of roof tiles and ornamental brickwork. As materials and styles developed, ornamentation began to blossom, and terra-cotta began replacing the much heavier and more labor-intensive stone pillars and architectural statuary. Much more convenient than its marble counterparts, hollow architectural terra-cotta could be reproduced with the use of molds, making hollow gutters, downspouts, and ductwork more lightweight, consistent, and economical to produce. Typically hung with metal anchors and backfilled with mortar, this type of work was common as far back as the Roman Empire, and it became ubiquitous with the European architecture of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Much of the American architecture of the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries showcases the beauty of architectural terra-cotta and ornamentation as it blossomed during the Industrial Revolution. Like terra-cotta replacing marble, the advent of synthetic materials that were lighter, cheaper, and more rapidly produced put most terra-cotta companies out of business by the early 1960s.
To this day there are only a handful of companies in the United States that still produce ceramic sewer pipes, roof tiles, and architectural terra-cotta. Although terra-cotta is no longer the best or cheapest choice for skinning a home, some people still choose it for its beauty. Paying homage to the history of tile and architectural terra-cotta, many ceramic sculptors use terra-cotta as a point of departure for its historical significance, and to reference clay's golden age of architectural adornment.
ARTIST FEATURE: Boris Aldridge
What drew you to making tile?
My father set up a company making English and Delft tiles back in the late 1990s. I joined the company in 2001, and then in 2010 I started my own practice. I wanted to develop the idea of tile as a work of art in its own right rather than just as functional adornment. Working in tile appeals to me for many different reasons, but primarily for my love of clay. It’s satisfying to use nothing but your hands, heat, and a bit of glaze to change a lump of dull, brown mud into a glittering, colorful work of art.
Can you briefly walk us through your daily studio practice?
I normally get to my studio around 8:15 a.m. After a sandwich and caffeine, I get straight to work. I spend most of the day applying designs onto glazed tiles using a mixture of brushwork or sgraffito, depending on the tile. This is the most labor-intensive part of making the tile and can take up to four days to complete. If I’m running short of glazed tiles, then I’ll make more using clay that I put though a slab roller. I don’t do lunch and generally work through until about 4:30 p.m. without a break. If I have enough tiles to fill up the kiln, then I’ll load it up and fire it just before I go home. That way, the tiles will be ready for when I come in the next day.
Geometry and history play such a vital role in your work. Can you describe why that is and how these two things inform your daily practice?
For me, the purest and most beautiful application of geometry has always been through tile. From the intricate eightfold patterns of the Alhambra to the majestic tenfold designs of Isfahan, the history of geometry and tile has been inextricably linked. Using the simplest of tools—a compass and a straight edge—it's possible to create extraordinarily complex geometric patterns. I'll often take a break from making tiles to explore new geometric designs and ideas, which I’ll then incorporate into my new work.
How do you strike a balance between your pursuits as a maker of both artistic and architectural tile?
Tile lies at the intersection of art and architecture, so for me it’s an easy balance to strike. Having said that, I do consider every tile I make to be a work of art. I definitely enjoy making new things rather than reproducing existing designs. I rarely make the same tile twice and, if I do, then they never end up looking the same.
Can you briefly describe your collaborative work with Daniela Yohannes and if or how that has affected you as an artist?
I’ve known Daniela for a long time and have always had a huge admiration for her work as an artist. Like me, she has work that is influenced and informed by myth, dreams, and storytelling—so our collaboration feels very natural. We've been exploring these themes through a series of tiled pieces ranging from large-scale tiled panels to a single tile. It’s been a particularly rewarding and inspiring experience working with an artist of Daniela’s standing and talent. We hope to pick up the collaboration again soon.
2 Lustrewarer star and cross panel.
3 Mother and Child.
4 Seven Deadly Sins; Photography courtesy of the artist.