NOTES

Introduction

1. All quotations in the book are from our research interviews unless otherwise attributed.

2. Robert D. Putnam, Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Community (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2000).

3. Max Weber, Economy and Society (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1954).

4. Alexis de Tocqueville, Democracy in America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000).

5. David Reisman, The Lonely Crowd: A Study of the Changing American Character (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1961).

6. Putnam, Bowling Alone.

7. Richard Sennett, The Corrosion of Character (New York: W. W. Norton, 1998).

8. Michael B. Arthur and Denise M. Rousseau, eds., The Boundaryless Career: A New Employment Principle for a New Organizational Era (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996).

9. Richard Scase and Robert Goffee, Reluctant Managers: Their Work and Lifestyles (London: Unwin Hyman, 1989).

10. Max Weber, “Science as a Vocation,” in Max Weber: Essays in Sociology (New York: Oxford University Press, 1975).

Chapter One

1. The literature adjacent to leadership—on motivation, teams, personal and organizational change, for example—is rich and interesting. But the leadership field narrowly defined is disappointing. Most standard textbooks in organizational behavior have an obligatory chapter on leadership. They usually conclude that effective leadership depends on the context. While we agree that it is fundamental to accept that leadership is situational, it is disappointing that many accounts stop there, offering little help to individuals seeking to improve their own leadership. For a recent textbook review, see, for example, L. J. Mullins, Management and Organizational Behavior, 7th ed. (London: Financial Times Prentice Hall, 2004). For a masterly review of classic and recent leadership research, see Jay Conger and Rabindra N. Kanungo, Charismatic Leadership in Organizations (London: Sage, 1998).

2. Quoted material in this chapter was obtained from the following interviews: Bill Burns, interview by Rob Goffee, Barcelona 2002; Franz Humer, interview by Rob Goffee, Basel, February 2000.

3. We first developed this view in the article “Why Should Anyone Be Led by You?” Harvard Business Review, September–October 2000.

4. See in particular the work of Manfred Kets de Vries (see Diane Coutu, “Putting Leaders on the Couch,” Harvard Business Review, January 2004), The Leadership Mystique (London: Financial Times Prentice Hall, 2002); and Michael Maccoby, “Narcissistic Leaders,” Harvard Business Review, January–February 2000.

5. Mary Parker Follett, Dynamic Administration (New York: Harper, 1941); Fred Fiedler, A Theory of Leadership Effectiveness (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1967); Paul Hersey, The Situational Leader (Escondido, CA: Center for Leadership Studies, 1984); and Victor H. Vroom, “Situational Factors in Leadership,” in Organization 21C, ed. Subir Chowdhury (London: Financial Times Prentice Hall, 2003).

6. The manner in which social reality is constructed is a major and influential strand of work within sociology, which has rarely been tapped for the purposes of leadership research and theory. For the classic account, see Peter L. Berger and Thomas Luckmann, The Social Construction of Reality (New York: Anchor Books, 1966).

7. The motivation literature on the significance of personal recognition and the appeal of challenging, stretching activities is most relevant. See, for example, John W. Hunt, Managing People at Work (London: McGraw-Hill, 1992).

8. The psychological literature is well summarized in Carl R. Rogers, On Becoming a Person (Gloucester, MA: Peter Smith Publisher, 1996); Robert Ornstein, The Roots of the Self (New York: HarperCollins, 1973); and Kenneth Gergen, The Saturated Self (New York: Basic Books, 1992).

9. The Concise Oxford Dictionary (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995).

10. Robert Dick and Tim Dalmau, Values in Action: Applying the Ideas of Argyris and Schön (Chapel Hill, Queensland, Australia: Interchange, 1990).

11. Jeffrey Pfeffer and Robert Sutton, The Knowing-Doing Gap (Boston: Harvard Business School Press, 1999).

12. Warren Bennis, On Becoming a Leader (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1989).

13. Seymour Martin Lipset and Reinhard Bendix, Social Mobility in Industrial Society (Somerset, NJ: Transaction Publishers, 1992); John H. Goldthorpe, Social Mobility and Class Structure in Modern Britain (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1980); Rosabeth Moss Kanter, Men and Women of the Corporation (New York: Basic Books, 1977).

14. Goffee and Jones, “Why Should Anyone Be Led by You?”

15. P. Christopher Earley and Elaine Mosakowski, “Cultural Intelligence,” Harvard Business Review, October 2004.

16. Steven Lukes, ed., Durkheim: The Rules of Sociological Method and Selected Texts on Sociology and Its Method (London: Macmillan, 1982); and Emile Durkheim, Suicide: A Study in Sociology (Glencoe, IL: Free Press, 1951).

17. Georg Simmel, “Social Distance,” in The Sociology of Georg Simmel, ed. Kurt H. Wolff (New York: Free Press, 1950); David Frisby, Georg Simmel (London: Tavistock, 1984).

18. This theme is apparent in the treatment of several significant historical and political leaders in John Adair’s Inspiring Leadership (London: Thorogood, 2002).

19. Heike Bruch and Sumantra Ghoshal, “Management Is the Art of Doing and Getting Done,” Business Strategy Review, Autumn 2004.

Chapter Two

1. Quotes in this chapter are from the following interviews, unless otherwise specified: Peter Brabeck, interview by Rob Goffee, Vevey, April 2003; Bill Burns, interview by Rob Goffee, Barcelona, December 2002; Rick Dobbis, interviews by Gareth Jones, New York and London, May 2003; Greg Dyke, interview by Gareth Jones and Rob Goffee, London, November 2002; David Gardner, interview by Rob Goffee, London, February 2003; John Latham, interview by Rob Goffee, Godalming, February 2003; Karen Marsh, interview by Rob Goffee, London Business School, May 2003; Sattelberger, interview by Rob Goffee, Frankfurt, September 2002; Martin Sorrell, interview by Rob Goffee, London, October 2002; Jean Tomlin, interview by Rob Goffee, London Business School, February, 2003

2. We discussed this theme in an earlier book: Richard Scase and Robert Goffee, Reluctant Managers: Their Work and Lifestyles (London: Unwin Hyman, 1989).

3. Issues of workplace change and identity are provocatively discussed in Richard Sennett’s The Corrosion of Character (New York: W.W. Norton, 1998).

4. Carl R. Rogers, On Becoming a Person (Gloucester, MA: Peter Smith Publisher, 1996); Robert Ornstein, The Roots of the Self (New York: HarperCollins, 1973); and Kenneth Gergen, The Saturated Self (New York: Basic Books, 1992). Interestingly, a sociological perspective on these questions was opened up by George Herbert Mead in Mind, Self and Society (Chicago: University of Chicago, 1934), drawing on the work of Cooley. However, these early formulations were never really developed in the leadership literature. The links between narcissism and leadership are picked up in Michael Maccoby’s and Manfred Kets de Vries’s work.

5. Akio Morita, Never Mind School Records (Tokyo, Japan: Asahi Shimbun Publishing Company, 1987).

6. How leaders use their emotions to liberate the energies of others is discussed insightfully in Daniel Goleman, Emotional Intelligence (New York: Bantam, 1995).

7. Jim Collins, Good to Great (New York: HarperBusiness, 2001).

8. For a masterly discussion of identity, roles, and role distance, see the classic work by Erving Goffman, The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life (Gloucester, MA: Peter Smith Publisher, 1999).

9. Like Greg Dyke, Jean Tomlin has moved on since our interview. As we discuss in chapter 9, leadership inevitably exposes individuals to risks, including job loss.

10. See Manfred Kets de Vries (see Diane Coutu, “Putting Leaders on the Couch,” Harvard Business Review, January 2004), The Leadership Mystique (London: Financial Times Prentice Hall, 2002); and Michael Maccoby, “Narcissistic Leaders,” Harvard Business Review, January–February 2000.

11. Jay Conger and Rabindra N. Kanungo, Charismatic Leadership in Organizations (London: Sage, 1998).

12. Land and Jobs are discussed in Conger and Kanungo, Charismatic Leadership; Carlsson and Gyllenhammer, in Maccoby, “Narcissistic Leaders.”

13. Contributions to the Harvard Business Review confirm the contemporary popularity of quiet leadership. See, for example, Joseph L. Badaracco, Jr., “We Don’t Need Another Hero,” Harvard Business Review, September 2001; James Collins, “Level 5 Leadership: The Triumph of Humility and Fierce Resolve,” Harvard Business Review, January 2001; Debra Meyerson, “Radical Change, the Quiet Way,” Harvard Business Review, October 2001.

14. David Kolb, Experiential Learning (London: Financial Times Prentice Hall, 1983).

15. For further discussion of cultural variation and identity, see Nancy J. Adler, International Dimensions of Organizational Behavior, 3rd ed. (Cincinnati, OH: Southwestern College Publishing, 1997); and P. Christopher Earley and Randall S. Peterson, “Elusive Cultural Chameleon: Cultural Intelligence as a New Approach to Intercultural Training for the Global Manager,” Academy of Management Learning and Education, 2003.

16. C. Wright Mills, The Sociological Imagination (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1990).

17. David Riesman, The Lonely Crowd (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1973).

18. Ray Oldenburg, The Great Good Place (New York: Paragon House, 1991).

Chapter Three

1. Quotes in this chapter are from the following interviews, unless otherwise specified: Peter Brabeck, interview by Rob Goffee, Vevey, April 2003; Bill Burns, interview by Rob Goffee, Barcelona, December 2002; Greg Dyke, interview by Gareth Jones and Rob Goffee, London, November 2002; Pete Goss, interview by Rob Goffee, London Business School, September 2002; Pauline Mancuso, interview by Rob Goffee and Gareth Jones, New York, February 2000; Paul McDermott, interview by Gareth Jones, London, March 2003.

2. Foible is defined in the Concise Oxford Dictionary as a minor weakness or idiosyncrasy. It is quite different from a fatal flaw.

3. In this sense, leadership is always instrumental; it is a relationship designed to achieve something. This distinguishes it from other types of relationship—friends or family, for example—that might be regarded as intrinsically good or desirable. The distinction is sometimes forgotten in contemporary discussions.

4. Alistair Mant, Leaders We Deserve (Oxford: Blackwell, 1983).

5. The story is told in his book, Greg Dyke, Inside Story (London: Harper-Collins, 2004).

6. Charles Taylor, Sources of the Self (Boston: Harvard University Press, 1989).

7. John W. Hunt, Managing People at Work (London: McGraw-Hill, 1992); and John Hunt, “The Leader as Exemplar,” Business Strategy Review, 1997. See also John Viney’s discussion of leadership, introversion, and distance in Drive (London: Bloomsbury, 1999).

8. Interesting insights on changing career structures can be found in Maury Peiperl et al., Career Frontiers (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000).

9. The phenomenon is not new; we discovered it initially in a survey of middle-level managers in the mid-1980s. See Richard Scase and Robert Goffee, Reluctant Managers: Their Work and Lifestyles (London: Unwin Hyman, 1989).

10. Studs Terkel, Working (London: Wildwood House, 1975).

11. The extent to which cultures allow the revelation of personal weakness without losing face will also be a constraining factor. The significance of face in Asian culture, for example, is important here. But it does not, in our view, totally preclude the leader from revealing humanizing weaknesses.

12. Simon Barnes, “Football Mourns Old Big ‘Ead,” Times (London), September 21, 2004.

13. Michael Parkinson, “Brian Clough,” Sunday Telegraph (London), September 26, 2004.

14. Michael Parkinson, “He Was Loveable and Impossible, Wise and Silly. A Pickle of a Man,” Daily Telegraph (London), September 21, 2004.

15. http://www.nottinghamforest.premiumtv.co.uk/

Chapter Four

1. Quotes in this chapter are from the following interviews, unless otherwise specified: John Bowmer, interview by Rob Goffee, London, October 2002; Bill Burns, interview by Rob Goffee, Barcelona, December 2002; Patti Cazzato, interview by Rob Goffee, San Francisco, November 2002; Greg Dyke, interview by Gareth Jones and Rob Goffee, London, November 2002; John Latham, interview by Rob Goffee, Godalming, February 2003

2. See Daniel Goleman, Emotional Intelligence (New York: Bantam, 1995).

3. Daniel Goleman and Richard Boyatzis, Primal Leadership (Boston: Harvard Business School Press, 2002).

4. This notion is central to classical social theory as it emerged in the nineteenth century. The clearest expression is in the work of Emile Durkheim, who, in both The Division of Labor in Society (New York: Free Press, 1984) and Steven Lukes, ed., Durkheim: The Rules of Sociological Method and Selected Texts on Sociology and Its Method (London: Macmillan, 1982), insisted on society as a reality, sui generis—as a thing in itself. In the twentieth century, the work of Talcott Parsons insists on the understanding of the ends, means, and conditions of action. Both are in stark contrast to the naïve voluntarism of much leadership literature.

5. George Homans, The Human Group (London: Routledge and Keegan Paul, 1951).

6. Peter L. Berger and Thomas Luckmann, The Social Construction of Reality (New York: Anchor Books, 1966).

7. Although many leaders look as if they gather information on others almost naturally, our experience is that they build a rich picture of others through fairly systematic work. Our network analysis is designed as an aid in this process.

8. Summarized in most standard organizational behavior textbooks; see, for example, L. J. Mullins, Management and Organizational Behavior, 7th ed. (London: Financial Times Prentice Hall, 2004).

9. Jon Katzenbach and Douglas K. Smith, The Wisdom of Teams (Boston: Harvard Business School Press, 1992).

10. Randall Peterson and T. L. Simons, “Task Conflict and Relationship Conflict in Top Management Teams,” Journal of Applied Psychology, 2000.

11. John W. Hunt, Managing People at Work (London: McGraw-Hill, 1992).

12. Deborah L. Duarte and Nancy Tennant Snyder, Mastering Virtual Teams, 2nd ed. (San Francisco: Jossey Bass, 2001).

13. Anthony Storr, The Art of Psychotherapy (London: Butterworth-Heinemann, 1990).

14. Tony Cockerill, “Ryder Cup Lessons in Team Play,” Business Strategy Review, Winter 2004.

Chapter Five

1. Quotes in this chapter are from the following interviews, unless otherwise specified: Jean Tomlin interview by Rob Goffee February 2003; Dawn Austwick, interview by Rob Goffee, London, March 2004.

2. Daily Telegraph (London), November 17, 2004.

3. For an interesting discussion on the issues surrounding this topic, see “Clash of the Titans: When Top Executives Don’t Get Along with the Team,” Knowledge@Wharton.

4. Warren Bennis, “The Seven Ages of the Leader,” Harvard Business Review, January 2004.

5. These concepts are embedded in the works of Emile Durkheim, Karl Marx, Max Weber, and Georg Simmel.

6. See Victor Vroom, Work and Motivation (New York: Wiley, 1954); R. D. Pritchard, “Organizational Productivity,” in Handbook of Industrial and Organizational Psychology, 2nd ed., eds. Marvin D. Dunnette and Leaetta M. Hough (Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press, 1992).

7. George Homans, The Human Group (London: Routledge and Keegan Paul, 1951).

8. This is exemplified in, for example, the notion of strategic intent outlined by Gary Hamel and C. K. Prahalad in Competing for the Future (Boston: Harvard University Press, 1994).

9. The model is developed in Rob Goffee and Gareth Jones, The Character of a Corporation, 2nd ed. (London: Profile Books, 2003).

10. These and other historical examples are discussed in John Adair, Inspiring Leadership (London: Thorogood, 2002).

11. Pierre Bourdieu, Distinction: A Social Critique of the Judgement of Taste (Boston: Harvard University Press, 1984).

12. Warren Bennis, “The Seven Ages of the Leader,” Harvard Business Review, January 2004.

Chapter Six

1. Quotes in this chapter are from the following interviews, unless otherwise specified: Bill Burns, interview by Rob Goffee, Barcelona, December 2002; Rick Dobbis, interviews by Gareth Jones, New York and London, May 2003; Nigel Morris, interview by Rob Goffee, Virginia, April 2003.

2. Georg Simmel, “Social Distance,” in The Sociology of Georg Simmel, ed. Kurt H. Wolff (New York: Free Press, 1950); David Frisby, Georg Simmel (London: Tavistock, 1984).

3. Richard Sennett, The Corrosion of Character (New York: W. W. Norton, 1998).

4. Given our insistence that leadership is nonhierarchical, using formal position as a personal difference is a fatal error.

5. George Homans, The Human Group (London: Routledge and Keegan Paul, 1951).

6. John Adair, Inspiring Leadership (London: Thorogood, 2002).

7. Ibid.

8. John W. Hunt, Managing People at Work (London: McGraw-Hill, 1992).

9. This is precisely the effect that cognitive dissonance theory predicts. Cognitive dissonance arises when two or more behaviors, attitudes, feelings, or opinions are perceived as inconsistent. When this happens with leaders, their overall authenticity is brought into question.

10. Daniel Goleman, Emotional Intelligence (New York: Bantam, 1995).

11. In the United Kingdom, the Health and Safety Executive defines stress as “the adverse reaction people have to excessive pressure or other types of demand placed on them.” In the United Kingdom, about half a million people experience work-related stress that they believe is making them ill. Up to five million people in the United Kingdom feel “very” or “extremely” stressed by their work. In the United States, almost one-third of the workforce feels overworked or overwhelmed by the amount of work they have to do.

12. In the United Kingdom, these are about the weather and the traffic. In the United States, they’re about sports, and in the Netherlands, for some reason, they involve coffee.

13. Adair, Inspiring Leadership.

Chapter Seven

1. Quotes in this chapter are from the following interviews, unless otherwise specified: Peter Brabeck, interview by Rob Goffee, April 2003; Pete Goss, interview by Rob Goffee, London Business School, September 2002; Franz Humer, interview by Rob Goff, Basel, October 2002

2. Nancy Rothbard and Jay Conger, “Orit Gadiesh: Pride at Bain & Co. (A),” Case 9-494-031 (Boston: Harvard Business School, 1993).

3. Jay Conger, Winning Them Over (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1998).

4. Stephen Denning, “Telling Tales,” Harvard Business Review, May 2004.

5. Sydney Finkelstein, “Seven Habits of Highly Ineffective Leaders,” Business Strategy Review, Winter 2003.

6. Ibid.

7. Ibid.

8. Leslie A. Perlow and Stephanie Williams, “Is Silence Killing Your Company?” Harvard Business Review, May 2003.

9. Suzy Wetlaufer and Peter Brabeck, “The Business Case Against Revolution,” Harvard Business Review, February 2001.

10. “Nestlé’s Long-Term View,” Economist, August 29, 2002.

11. John W. Hunt, Managing People at Work (London: McGraw-Hill, 1992).

12. Malcolm Gladwell, “The Perfect Chief Executive,” Times (London), August 20, 2002.

13. Michael Hay and Peter Williamson, The Handbook of Strategy (Oxford: Blackwell, 1991).

14. Karl E. Weick and Diane L, Coutu, “Sense and Reliability: A Conversation with Celebrated Psychologist Karl E. Weick,” Harvard Business Review, April 2003.

Chapter Eight

1. Loren Gary, “Neoteny: How Leaders Recruit the Right Kind of Followers,” Harvard Management Update, September 2002; Robert E. Kelley, The Power of Followership (New York: Doubleday Currency, 1992).

2. Heike Bruch and Sumantra Ghoshal, “Managing Is the Art of Doing and Getting Done,” Business Strategy Review, Autumn 2004.

3. Lynn Offerman, “When Followers Become Toxic,” Harvard Business Review, January 2004.

4. Warren Bennis, An Invented Life: Reflections on Leadership and Change (Boulder, CO: Perseus Books, 1994).

5. E. P. Hollander, “Conformity, Status and Idiosyncrasy Credit,” Psychological Review 65 (1958); and Leaders, Groups, and Influence (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1964).

Chapter Nine

1. Greg Dyke, Inside Story (London: HarperCollins, 2004).

2. Ibid., 33

3. Ibid, 20–21.

4. Ibid., 25

5. Ibid., 25

6. Ibid.

7. Ibid.

8. Ibid.

9. David Hume, Essays, Moral, Political, and Literary (Indianapolis, IN: Liberty Classics, 1987).

10. Cited in Karl Popper, In Search of a Better World (London: Routledge, 1992).

11. John Adair, Inspiring Leadership (London: Thorogood, 2002).