CHAPTER 18
PUBLIC AWARENESS AND PERSONAL, FAMILY, AND COMMUNITY PREPAREDNESS
Challenges and Solutions

All Americans should begin a process of learning about potential threats so we are better prepared to react during an attack. While there is no way to predict what will happen, or what your personal circumstances will be, there are simple things you can do now to prepare yourself and your loved ones.

U.S. Department of Homeland Security, www.ready.gov

CHAPTER OVERVIEW

There are many relatively easy ways for Americans to help fight terrorism, avoid becoming victims, and mitigate the effects of attack or disaster. The greater challenge is getting them to act. Individuals, families, and households have little propensity to care about disasters before they occur. Everyday concerns outweigh preparing for a disaster. Plus, some people just “never get the word” without effective efforts from family members, community groups and the government.

This chapter outlines difficulties faced in getting individuals and families to adopt personal preparedness and security measures. It also describes means to alert citizens to take action. Finally, it describes practical preparedness measures.

CHAPTER LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After reading this chapter, you should be able to

1. Describe difficulties in getting individuals to adopt personal preparedness measures.

2. Understand limitations of current risk communication systems.

3. Detail critical preparedness activities that individuals should adopt.

4. Know what should be in a disaster preparedness kit.

5. List individual measures that can be taken to combat terrorism.

THE PREPAREDNESS CHALLENGE

Emergencies happen in America every day, yet few of us prepare for them. That’s a problem. Convincing individual Americans to prepare for disasters, any kind of disaster, is no easy task. The events of 9/11 largely happened at the workplace, and physical damage did not extend far beyond the attack sites. America may not be so lucky next time.

Why We Don’t Prepare

Research suggests that many people change their behavior or prepare for disasters only after personal experience of a threat. Additionally, perceived need for preparedness recedes as the event becomes more remote.¹ Given that few Americans have experienced, or will likely experience, a terrorist attack, such findings do not bode well for convincing a significant number to take precautions.

The diverse character of American public significantly exacerbates the challenge. Differences in socioeconomic status, gender, race, ethnicity, age, culture, and language all affect one’s predisposition to prepare.

Value of Preparedness

Nevertheless, personal preparedness is vitally important. If a disaster occurs, local responders may prove unable to reach all those affected immediately, or they may lack resources to address every problem. Basic services such as electricity, gas, telephones, or sewage may not be available, or people may be forced to evacuate their homes. If individuals can care for themselves, they may reduce the risk of life-threatening illness or injury and limit losses that occur in the wake of a tragedy. In addition, being prepared and understanding how to respond reduces fear and anxiety, important for both short- and long-term recovery.

While prospects for encouraging families to undertake preparedness measures are daunting, the payoff could be substantial. There are many popular assumptions, largely influenced by television and movies,² suggesting how people react in the face of disasters. These are largely myths. According to a survey of behavioral science research, panic during community disasters is extremely rare. It usually occurs in extreme and short-term situations, such as fleeing fires in confined spaces like narrow hallways. Nor do people tend to act dazed or helpless in the aftermath of a tragedy or turn on others for self-preservation. Rather, in the aftermath of tragedy, people tend to look after themselves and actively assist neighbors and kin.³

Given that local communities are likely to act positively in a disaster, taking even simple measures recommended by emergency preparedness professionals is likely to limit damage and casualties and, equally important, allow emergency responders to focus on the most life-threatening problems.

RISK COMMUNICATIONS

Research does suggest that individuals are more likely to act when forewarned about a threat seen as fairly certain and imminent. A significant challenge for authorities in mobilizing public preparedness for a potential terrorist attack is crafting and communicating appropriate warnings. Public alerts must be credible, specific, understandable, and actionable by individuals.⁴

National Terrorism Advisory System

There is no single, integrated national system of communicating terrorist risks to the general public. A national Homeland Security Advisory System (HSAS) was established by President Bush not long after 9/11. Subsequently, the Homeland Security Act of 2002 placed responsibility for early warning activities squarely on the shoulders of the secretary of the Department of Homeland Security. Section 201 of the law also assigned the Directorate of Information Analysis and Infrastructure Protection (IAIP) responsibility for administering the HSAS. From in its inception, the system—with its color-coded threat levels—proved controversial. In 2011 it was replaced by the National Terrorism Advisory System (NTAS).

Unlike the color-coded alert system, NTAS issues only two categories of warnings.

• Imminent Threat Alert: Warns of a credible, specific, and impending terrorist threat against the United States

• Elevated Threat Alert: Warns of a credible terrorist threat against the United States

Each alert includes a clear statement about the nature of the threat and a summary of available and releasable information, as well as specific recommendations for ensuring public safety.

NTAS alerts also have a “sunset provision.” Alerts cover a specified time period. At the end of the period, the alert expires. If there is sufficient concern to extend the alert, or if new information involving the threat becomes available, a new alert would be issued.

The newer system also instituted more formal procedures, systems, and protocols to manage alerts. The process includes an interagency review of information and intelligence to determine if an alert is appropriate.

NTAS alerts are issued through a variety of means, including social media. Individuals can register to receive alerts through social networking sites by registering on the DHS website.

Emergency Alert Systems

National systems also exist to provide more targeted emergency alerts. They are the Emergency Alert System (EAS) and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s Severe Weather Radio System, operated by the National Weather Service. The EAS replaced the Cold War–era Emergency Broadcast System and its monthly announcements (“This is a test of the Emergency Alert System—this is only a test. …”). EAS provides the capability to address the country during emergencies. If used at the national level, only the president, or the president’s representative, can activate EAS; however, state and local governments can also use the system. All AM, FM, and TV broadcast stations participate in EAS, as well as cable systems and wireless cable networks. EAS codes can also travel on nonbroadcast frequencies and telephone lines and provide the option to carry data for specially equipped cellular phones, pagers, and eventually Internet broadband applications.

EAS messages must be under two minutes. They can include identification of precautionary protective actions for special populations (school children and transportation-dependent individuals) or by location (public parks, beaches, and so on); identification of protective actions (if any) for the general public using familiar landmarks (political jurisdictions, major highways, rivers, railroads, zip codes, and so on); identification of evacuation routes; identification of reception centers for radiological monitoring of evacuees and care centers for lodging of evacuees; instructions on how to maximize protection when sheltering (remain inside, close all windows and doors, shut off any forced air heating or cooling systems); information addressing and responding to false or misleading rumors, as well as the provision of rumor control numbers to the public; ingestion-related instructions and information (how to avoid ingesting contaminated particles); and reminders on what to take along when evacuating.

Today, the EAS is primarily used to disseminate weather warnings and AMBER (America’s Missing: Broadcast Emergency Response) alerts concerning abducted children. While the system is well established, there are concerns over the security, funding, and management of the EAS, which is shared by the Federal Communications Commission (FCC), National Weather Service, DHS, states, and volunteer state and local EAS committees.⁵ Nor is participation in the EAS mandatory for state and local governments.

In 2004, a presidential order required the establishment of the Integrated Public Alert and Warning System (IPAWS). IPAWS is an effort to expand the traditional EAS system to incorporate emerging communications technologies including social media. The goal is to enable rapid dissemination of warnings through multiple communications mediums.

In addition to federal emergency alert systems, there are numerous state and local emergency systems ranging from bells and sirens to automatic calling services such as so-called “reverse 9-1-1” systems. Increasingly, local jurisdictions offer email and text alerts. Commercially available alert systems provide rapid warning and information to those at large locations such as college campuses and businesses. In general, most people are likely to learn of a disaster by news reports carried on radio, broadcast television, cable, or the Internet and social media. To be sure, many others are alerted only by word-of-mouth or electronic communication from a friend or relative.

The Media

Public media alerts, unlike systems such as the EAS, are filtered through private media companies and newsrooms. But they can be very effective. In the United States, for example, the dramatic drop in death tolls from tornadoes over the last two decades has been attributed in part to more effective use of warnings issued over public media.

Public media outlets can be used to disseminate disaster preparedness and response information, stimulate volunteerism (such as giving blood and food), and counteract rumors and in accurate information.⁶

The Challenges of Risk Communication

Every form of alert system has both advantages and disadvantages in reaching intended audiences and ensuring messages are understood. Of all means available, telephonic alerts are considered most accurate, dependable, and capable of reaching most segments of the population.

Lack of Specific Information

Even with appropriate means to transmit risk communication, providing early warning of terrorist attacks is especially problematic. Unlike weather alerts, for example, authorities may lack sufficient specific information or time to craft a warning that elicits an appropriate response.

Lack of Practice

Another challenge is that authorities are often not well practiced in risk communication. It is not clear to them what information is required by different segments of the population, and it is often difficult to get rapid feedback on how citizens are actually receiving and acting on information.⁷

Lack of Capacity

During 9/11, people inside the World Trade Center called the New York City 911 system with frantic requests for instructions on how to respond and where to go. Tragically, in many cases the operators had no specific, official information to share. In some cases, operators actually told callers to stay put—at the same time fire department officials at the scene were ordering a full evacuation.

Many jurisdictions have launched so-called “311 systems” that allow citizens to call in with questions. But these usually focus on non-emergency issues such as complaints about potholes. Years after 9/11, emergency systems across the nation still lacked capacity to provide specific, updated, and interactive information during emergencies.

Even the most basic role of 911 systems can be degraded by high numbers of calls during an emergency. Programs have been launched to increase the capacity and efficiency of these systems, which cover about 96 percent of the United States. Among the efforts are FCC directives that require wireless carriers to provide 911 services, plus plans to provide 911 access using voice over the Internet protocols and to allow greater information sharing over the system. But 911 services could still be overwhelmed during a large-scale emergency. Even if public systems are prepared, many callers may not be able to reach them, as events from 9/11 to the East Coast earthquake of 2011 demonstrated that mobile telephone systems are often overwhelmed during emergencies.

Limitations of the Media

The use of the media as an alert system may also be a challenge. Most media members want to be professional and accurate. However, in today’s real-time news environment, they are under great pressure to get stories out fast and make them as dramatic and timely as possible. Rather than serving as a responsible conduit for risk communication, the media may exacerbate problems with inaccurate or misleading information. Reporters, for example, may lack the expertise to cover an event accurately or fall prey to hoaxes. The media can also control how much time is devoted to a subject matter and to some extent can dictate what types of subject matter public officials can discuss on-air. Studies show the amount of media coverage of a disaster can directly affect audience response, prompting the public to take preparedness measures or exacerbating anxiety and stress.⁸

Principles of Effective Communication

Regardless of means of delivery, the key to inspiring preparedness or response measures is to employ principles of effective communication. These are essential for communicating messages both directly to the public and through news media filters to a general audience.

Clear Goals

Communication efforts must have clear goals and key messages to support them. For example, a goal of “educating the public on bioterrorism and preparing them for any eventuality” is not realistic; informing people of specific dangers is a more achievable goal.

Consistent Message

Another fundamental of effective risk communication is to “stay on message.” In other words, the message should be focused, consistent, and received by the intended audience.

Appropriate Information

Information must be timely, accurate, and simple to understand; this is particularly important for communicating complex or scientific data. It is equally important to acknowledge uncertainty. Loss of credibility will significantly degrade effectiveness. If the audience does not perceive communications as credible, they will be unlikely to act on them. Factors the public assesses in judging credibility are empathy and caring, competence and expertise, honesty and openness, and dedication and commitment.⁹

The more specific and timely the information provided, the more likely citizens can effectively adapt and respond to rapidly changing emergency circumstances.

INDIVIDUAL, FAMILY, AND COMMUNITY ANTITERRORISM MEASURES

Personal antiterrorism measures for the most part parallel recommendations for preventing crime. Basic principles are taking steps to secure the home, workplace, and personal property; being alert and aware of surroundings and conspicuous or unusual behavior; reporting suspicious activities through appropriate channels; supporting Neighborhood Watch programs; creating liaisons between neighborhood groups and local law enforcement authorities; and developing a system to disseminate information rapidly throughout the neighborhood.

Encouraging individuals to adopt good security practices requires they understand the threat and perceive it as relevant to their community. Thus, learning about the risk of terrorism will increase the likelihood that good security practices are adopted.

Specific Antiterrorism Measures

The most useful individual antiterrorist precautions are knowing how to respond to bomb threats and suspicious packages, vehicles, and individuals; the most likely terrorist threats that may be encountered; and areas where the public can play a significant role in helping to deter, prevent, or mitigate terrorist acts.

Bomb Threats

Individuals should know how to respond to terrorist bombings of high-rise buildings or public conveyances such as subways, which are often favorite bombing targets for terrorists. They should learn where emergency exits and staircases are located and think ahead about how to evacuate a building, subway, or congested public area in a hurry. They should also know where fire extinguishers are located and how to use them.

In the event of an incident, to avoid being hurt by debris from an explosion, individuals should take cover under or against a desk or table. They should move away from file cabinets, bookshelves, or other things that might fall, face away from windows and glass, and avoid away from exterior walls.

If evacuation of a high-rise building or subway is required, they should not use elevators. Elevator shafts could act as a chimney spreading fire or contamination throughout a structure. Rather, building residents should go down the stairwells, staying to the right to allow emergency workers to come up.

Suspicious Packages

Law enforcement agencies have identified a number of characteristics that might indicate a suspicious package containing a bomb or other hazardous material. Items to watch for include inappropriate or unusual labeling; excessive postage; handwritten or poorly typed addresses; misspellings of common words; no return address or a strange one; incorrect titles or title without a name; lack of address to a specific person; restrictions, such as “Personal,” “Confidential,” or “Do not X-ray”; threatening language; or postmarks from a city or state that does not match the return address.

Suspicious packages can be identified by appearance, such as powdery substances felt through or appearing on the package or envelope; oily stains, discolorations, or odors; lopsidedness or unevenness; excessive packaging material, such as masking tape, and string; excessive weight; and protruding wires or aluminum foil. Packages should also be checked for suspicious sounds, including that old bromide, a ticking sound as in an alarm clock.

If an individual encounters a suspicious package, the following steps are recommended. Put the package or envelope down on a stable surface; do not sniff, touch, taste, or look closely at it or at any contents that have spilled. Alert others in the area. Leave the area and close any doors. If possible, shut off the ventilation system. Anyone who handled the package should immediately wash his or her hands with soap and water to prevent spreading potentially hazardous material. Notify a supervisor, security officer, or law enforcement official. Make a list of persons who were in the room and persons who also may have handled this package or letter.

Responding to Suspicious Activity

Individuals must use their best judgment to identify activities that are extraordinary or suspicious, especially since the only difference between innocuous and threatening behavior may be intent, which can be difficult or even impossible to gauge in isolation. Suspect activities might include looking lost and/or wandering around, appearing to be conducting surveillance (using cameras/video), abandoning an item and leaving the area quickly; or openly possessing a weapon or any prohibited or dangerous item.

In all cases, the appropriate action is to notify a responsible person, such as a superior, security official, or local enforcement. Suspected terrorist activities can also be reported to the FBI’s hotline at tips.fbi.gov.

DHS has established a public awareness campaign called “If You See Something, Say Something” (see also Chapter 6). The campaign carries a simple message: “If you see something, say something. Report suspicious activity to local law enforcement or call 911.” The campaign reflects the traditional civil liberties concerns of Americans about informing on one another. Its education materials emphasize that race, ethnicity, national origin, and religious affiliation alone are not suspicious. Likewise, individuals sharing views or speaking on matters that do not specifically relate to terrorist or criminal activity do not merit reporting as suspicious activities. However, discussing a future attack or inciting others to violence should be reported. Saying, for example, “America is a terrible country” would not, of itself, be an incident to be reported. On the other hand, declaring that “we should kill the president” might be. The “If You See Something, Say Something” campaign recommends that only reports that “document behavior reasonably indicative of criminal activity related to terrorism” should be sent to federal authorities.

PRINCIPLES OF EMERGENCY PREPAREDNESS PLANNING

Many measures for preparing the public for a terrorist attack are the same as those necessary to respond to disasters. Thus, preparing for a terrorist strike is little different from getting ready to deal with virtually any kind of public emergency. Almost none of these efforts require specialized equipment or training. For the most part, emergency planning professionals eschew stockpiling specialized equipment, such as gas masks or antibiotics, since most individuals lack training and experience to maintain and use these items appropriately. Rather, extensive research suggests that simple and commonsense precautions are usually effective at protecting individuals until emergency response services can be brought to bear.

Many commercial and public service products are available to assist in emergency planning and education. The most readily available source of information is the American Red Cross. Individuals can obtain copies of the disaster education material from a local Red Cross chapter. They can also be reviewed on the national Red Cross website or a special website established by the DHS at www.ready.gov. Those with an interest in protecting their communities can volunteer for DHS programs such as CERT (Community Emergency Response Teams) training and activities (see Chapter 19).

Virtually all disaster preparedness guides include the following basic components: a disaster supply kit, a family emergency and communication plan, and a shelter-in-place or evacuation scheme.

Disaster Supply Kits

Fundamental to any personal response is an emergency cache of supplies. These are items that will allow individuals to limit the potential for injury or illness. The Federal Emergency Management Agency recommends maintaining sufficient supplies to survive for three days. Items should be kept together in an easy-to-carry container, such as a trash bag, backpack, or duffle bag; this ensures they are both easy to find and also transportable in case of evacuation. Disaster preparedness kits should be prepared for the workplace as well as the home. In addition, individuals should include a smaller disaster supply kit in the trunk of their cars. The six basics recommended for home disaster kits include water, food, first aid supplies, clothing and bedding, tools and emergency supplies, and special items, such as prescriptions.

Water

Stockpiling water is an absolute priority. Water is not only essential for sustaining life and helping the body heal in case of injury or illness, but necessary for sanitation. Proper hydration helps individuals think, act, and maintain stamina, all essential attributes for responding to stressful, demanding, and chaotic conditions. A rule of thumb is one gallon of water per person per day for drinking, food preparation, and sanitary purposes. Physical condition, high altitude, and hot weather may significantly increase fluid requirements. For example, children, nursing mothers, and injured or ill people may need more. Water should be stored in clean, nontoxic, plastic containers rather than in something that might decompose or break, like cardboard milk containers or glass. Stored water should be changed every six months and containers sealed to prevent contamination.

Food

Food stored for emergencies should not require refrigeration, cooking, or extensive preparation. These supplies should be stored in a cool, dry place in tightly sealed containers and can include staples normally found on the kitchen shelf, such as canned food or packaged goods. In the wake of an attack, individuals should take care to clean containers and food utensils before opening so as to avoid inadvertently consuming contamination from the air. Unlike water, food, except for children and pregnant women, can be rationed, with individuals surviving on half their normal intake.

First Aid Supplies

Recommendations on what first aid supplies should be stockpiled vary. The Red Cross has issued a list of suggested medical supplies (see sidebar). These include items found in most commercially available first aid kits. In the wake of a disaster, the most pressing concern is addressing potentially life-threatening illness or injury until professional medical service can be provided. These actions include preventing shock, stopping bleeding and maintaining adequate body fluids, and limiting the risk of infection or contamination. So priority first aid supplies are those used to stop bleeding, clean skin and wounds, and provide comfort. Medications recommended are nonprescription drugs that can be safely administered without expert medical advice, such as pain relief, antidiarrheal, and stomach ache tablets. Not to be forgotten is an adequate supply of prescription medicines for those requiring them.

Clothing and Bedding

These items can be important for preserving heath and safety after an event. For example, clothing must be changed if contaminated by hazardous particles or debris, or if it becomes wet, especially in cold conditions or for those people vulnerable to illness. Safety clothing may be required to recover injured people or remove damage. Individuals should have one complete change of clothing and footwear for each member of the household, including sturdy work shoes, gloves, hats, socks, underwear, sunglasses, and rain gear. Bedding may be required to help treat shock and maintain warmth. It should include blankets or sleeping bags.

Tools and Emergency Supplies

Individuals should assume that public services may be disrupted and they will have to go without television, Internet, telephony, electricity, and sewage. Thus, tools and supplies are necessary to get emergency information and provide basic services. As a result, recommended items include portable battery-powered radios and batteries, signal flares, matches, battery-operated clocks, manual can opener, paper and pens, and sanitation and hygiene items (bleach, insect repellent, soap, toothpaste, and toothbrushes). Also recommended are tools and supplies that might be useful for emergency repairs to limit damage or risk of contamination, including wrenches, pliers, and shovels; eye protection; dust masks; duct tape, plastic sheeting, and scissors; and fire extinguishers.

Special Items

Critical are items that meet the special needs of individuals at higher risk, including older persons, children, and pregnant women. Also vital is preserving important family documents. These include wills, insurance policies, contract deeds, stocks and bonds, passports, social security cards, immunization records, bank account numbers, credit card account numbers password information, household inventories, important telephone numbers, and family records (birth, marriage, and death certificates). Increasingly these items can include data in digital form, from images of expensive household items for insurance purposes to digitized documents. Such files can be maintained by online data storage providers. Physical storage back-ups and paper copies should be kept in a sealed, waterproof container that can be easily transported.

Pets

Experienced emergency planners have learned never to underestimate the role of pets in disasters and include this factor in planning and emergency communications. More than one family has refused to evacuate unless it could take the beloved pet along.

Along with supplies for human members of the family, citizens should assemble a “pet survival” plan and kit. The plan can include determining in advance whether likely evacuation shelters accept pets and, if not, identifying motels and boarding facilities that would. The pet’s license should be kept updated at all times, along with identification on its collar. Many people also have microchip identification tags emplaced in their animals. The family should assemble veterinary records, food, water, supplies such as cat litter and pan, and other required materials in a transportable kit. This should include a leash and pet carrier, since pets may panic in disasters.

If an owner must leave his pet, it should be placed inside the house, not chained outside, and with a supply of food and water. An open toilet can suffice for the latter in a hurry. A notice should be left on the door advising that a pet is inside and providing contact information. After the disaster, a pet may be confused or disturbed. The sights and smells of its normal habitat may also be altered, making it easier to get lost, and there could be new hazards in the area. Because of such factors, and the potential negative impact on behavior from fear and stress, it may be advisable to keep the pet leashed or confined when it first returns home.

Family Disaster and Communication Plan

Preparedness experts agree that stockpiling supplies alone is not sufficient. Previous planning and practice can make the difference between survival and tragedy in an emergency. Disaster plans can build upon basic preparation, such as family fire drills. Because family members may not be together when disaster strikes, they need a plan on how to contact one another, as well as relatives and associates. Families also need to review different scenarios and what local plans and services are in place to assist them in times of emergency.

The first step in crafting individual plans is to gather relevant information. Individuals should find out what kinds of disasters, both natural and human-made, are most likely to occur in the local area and how residents will be notified of impending emergency. The local chapter of the Red Cross is usually the best source of this information. Individuals should also inquire about site-specific emergency plans at schools, day care providers, workplaces, neighborhoods, public transportation, apartment buildings, and other places where they and their family members spend most of their day.

Communication planning includes ensuring that all family members have means of contacting one another. During an emergency it is often easier to contact someone outside the disaster area. Many plans call for contacting an out-of-state friend, relative, or associate who can serve as an information “clearing house.” Plans also call for picking a safe meeting place located outside the neighborhood or workplace where family members can assemble if they cannot return home.

It is crucial to review response plans and scenarios with family members and coworkers beforehand and then practice.

Immediate Actions in the Case of an Emergency

The Red Cross recommends a standard response applicable to most emergency situations, including terrorism. Remain calm and be patient. If the disaster has struck you and your immediate location, check yourself and others nearby for injuries. Give first aid and get help for seriously injured people. Check for fires, fire hazards, and other household hazards. Use a flashlight—do not light matches or candles or turn on electrical switches. Sniff for gas leaks, starting at the water heater. If a gas leak is suspected, turn off the main gas valve, open windows, and get everyone outside quickly. Shut off any other damaged utilities. Confine or secure your pets. Implement the family emergency communication plan, and check on neighbors or coworkers, especially the elderly or disabled. Monitor the radio, television—or Internet for news and instructions. Follow the advice of emergency officials. Until the nature of the event is clear, take care to avoid eating or drinking anything that might be contaminated with hazardous material.

Evacuation and Shelter in Place

One of the most important decisions in an emergency is whether to shelter in place or evacuate. Unless individuals are in immediate physical danger (for example, fires, explosions, or contamination inside their building, or an approaching hurricane), it is often safer to remain indoors. Fires, conventional explosions, and biological, radiological, and chemical incidents may all release dangerous contaminants into the atmosphere. Sheltering in place is perhaps the best method to avoid hazards from a disaster, including dangerous materials in the air or a debris cloud.

Sheltering in place means taking refuge in a small, interior room or basement, if possible with no windows. In the case of a chemical threat, an above ground shelter is preferable since some chemicals are heavier than air and will sink to lower levels. Other precautions include closing windows, vents, and flues and sealing cracks around doors and vents with plastic sheeting and duct tape. Sheltering in place under these conditions is usually required for only a few hours, so there is little threat of suffocating.

Unless in immediate physical danger, individuals should evacuate only if directed by government officials. It is therefore essential to listen to local radio and television reports. If evacuation is required, residents should know how to shut off electricity, gas, and water supplies at main switches or values. Residents should secure their homes, let their out-of-state points of contact know where they are going, and evacuate with their disaster preparedness kits using evacuation routes recommended by the authorities. In an evacuation, individuals must be mindful that situations can evolve more rapidly than the ability of officials to provide useful directions. Citizens must rely on their own emergency preparations, common sense and cooperation with others. In many cases, spontaneous but sometimes complex and lengthy cooperative efforts among neighbors and even complete strangers has saved lives—the massive waterborne evacuation of citizens in lower Manhattan on 9/11 being one significant example.

Special Needs

Preparedness plans give special consideration to persons with disabilities or special needs. For example, the hearing impaired or non–English speaking may require special arrangements to receive emergency information. Mobility impaired individuals or households with single working parents may need assistance in responding to disasters or getting family members to shelters. People with special dietary or medical needs should have specially tailored emergency supplies. Children, older individuals, and persons with depressed immune systems as a result of illness, such as HIV/AIDS, or medical treatment, like chemotherapy, may require additional attention when at risk of injury or contagious disease.

Measures to address special needs could include identifying special assistance programs and registering with the local office of emergency services or fire department, so that needed help can be provided quickly. Networks of relatives, friends, caregivers, coworkers or neighbors can be organized to provide aid. People in support networks should know how to operate specialized medical equipment or administer medicines. Specialized equipment, such as batteries for wheelchairs, diapers, catheters, or food for hearing and guide dogs, should be stockpiled. Individuals may also wear medical alert tags or bracelets to help identify disabilities. Those requiring prescription medications might consider maintaining a three-day supply at their workplace in case they cannot get home during an emergency. A physician or pharmacist should be consulted about such stockpiling so issues such as storage requirements or expiration dates are addressed.

NEXT STEPS IN INDIVIDUAL AND COMMUNITY RESPONSE

After the devastation of Hurricane Katrina in the summer of 2005, Washington was justly criticized for shortfalls in federal assistance. However, too much attention was given to the role of government and too little to those who should make the biggest difference in the critical first hours and days of a crisis: people in the communities themselves. The greatest advance that America could make in preparing for catastrophic disasters is to build better individual and family-based programs, a culture of preparedness, and resilient and self-reliant communities.

Whole Community Planning

One FEMA initiative in this area emphasizes planning for the “whole community.” This effort includes training programs emphasizing the importance of planning for individuals with disabilities. Many federal and state laws, in fact, prohibit against discrimination in disaster response. FEMA support materials, for example, provide guidance on support needs for children and adults with functional disabilities in public shelters.

Thinking beyond Duct Tape

In 2003 DHS was widely lampooned for its promotion of duct tape in disaster response kits. The tape was for use with plastic sheets to establish impromptu shelters against chemical and biological threats. While the potential need for improvised shelters is real, the humor reflected an understanding that effective preparedness efforts must transcend national, one way and “one-size-fits-all” directives to citizens. They should include greater empowerment of both individuals and communities (the role of businesses and community and faith-based organizations is discussed in Chapter 19), and two-way cooperation with authorities.¹⁰

Community-based Planning

Most state and local emergency management plans were developed with little direct involvement from the community. As a result, they may lack pre-existing “buy-in” from residents. They may also fail to focus on the importance of soliciting various forms of assistance, including information, from citizens during disasters. Disaster planning that includes community input produces not only higher quality plans, but also greater levels of approval and confidence from the citizenry.

Risk Communication

As discussed, the government faces serious challenges in crafting and communicating warnings that actually motivate individuals to prepare and respond. Local community leaders can play an important role in this regard, acting as interactive and motivating sources of information. When individuals receive frightening news, they are likely to act with less stress if able to ask questions and receive accurate answers, which makes the presence of credible sources in the community highly important. A known figure, such as the family doctor or clergyman, or a neighbor with preparedness training (as discussed in Chapter 19), can play such a role. Developing community risk communication programs that identify, educate, and empower these spokespersons beforehand will enable them to reach out effectively during a crisis.

Needs Assessments and Situational Awareness

In addition to getting messages out to the community, government agencies need to focus on getting critical information back in. In a large-scale crisis, when communications are interrupted, access to the disaster area is limited, and infrastructure is disrupted, it is essential to determine where needs are greatest and resources are available. Providing such situational awareness to frontline responders is extremely difficult, but local residents can make it possible. This exchange happens most effectively when citizens know what information is needed and how to communicate it during disasters. Emerging technologies (such as mobile phones with cameras and video, email, text, and Twitter) provide citizens with dramatic new channels to capture and convey crucial information to government agencies, in effective providing huge numbers of “intelligent sensors” in disaster areas. But many agencies have yet to implement effective processes to receive and act upon such data.

The impact of inadequate communication is clear and negative. For example, after Hurricane Katrina, rumors spread of hundreds dying in the Superdome. In fact, six people died: four of natural causes, one of a drug overdose, and one of suicide. Most displaced persons at the scene behaved well and followed instructions from the National Guard and other emergency responders at the scene. Yet fears of violence at the Superdome slowed recovery because responders were forced to wait for additional security before moving into the facility in full force. If the correct information had been communicated properly to officials and the media, the response might have been much more effective.

INDICATIONS OF A TERRORIST ATTACK

An example of critical information available from the community involves early warning of terrorist attack. Some of the most serious terrorist attacks may not start with obvious signs such as an explosion. Instead, it may be the presence of strange or out-of-place odors, such as the smell of new-mown hay in a subway, or dead birds or small animals, that indicate the release of dangerous chemicals. This might be followed by observations of people in physical distress, such as experiencing vomiting, convulsions, or unconsciousness. Incidences of biological or radiological agents may be even less obvious. The initial onset of effects may resemble something similar to cold or flu. In such cases, authorities may relay on traditional methods of syndromic surveillance, or even newer methods such as data-mining of searches being conducted online (such as those for treatments of flu or more specific symptoms in a geographic area) or other interactive feeds.

Self-Diagnosis and Treatment

During a disaster, far more people will need medical care than usual—meantime normal medical resources may be reduced by damage to facilities or the absence of injured or stranded hospital personnel. This makes it crucial for citizens not only to provide immediate care for themselves and those around them, but also recognize the difference between emergency medical situations and those manageable at home. When the “worried well” or minimally injured flood emergency rooms, those truly in need of urgent medical attention may die as a result. Expanding capacity for basic medical self-evaluation and treatment allows scarce medical assets to be focused on the greatest needs.

Mental Health Response

An important and underappreciated aspect of disaster response is responding to mental health issues caused by stress and trauma. These issues surface with both victims and responders. Community-centered planning offers important resources in this regard.

When community ties are strong, supportive, and responsive to the individual’s physical and emotional needs, the capacity to overcome stress is heightened. Citizens tend to feel more secure and better cared for when members of their own community respond to their needs. Even informal community conversation can provide talk therapy and other immediate measures to relieve stress.

Long-term Health Monitoring

Large-scale disasters can produce ill effects that do not become apparent for days, weeks, months, or even years after the crisis. At the World Trade Center site, responders, victims, and members of the surrounding community were exposed to a variety of environmental hazards and the effects on their long-term health are still not completely understood.

Individuals can help themselves cope with long-term health consequences by understanding symptoms they should look for in themselves and others.

CHAPTER SUMMARY

For a variety of social, cultural, economic, and psychological reasons it is difficult to inspire individuals to undertake adequate personal preparedness and security measures. In addition, national systems for risk communication remain inadequate. These limitations aside, there are simple, inexpensive, and effective precautions that individuals and communities can undertake to improve their security. Many of these measures are all-hazards; in other words, they are effective for disasters from fires to WMD attacks.

CHAPTER QUIZ

1. Why is it difficult to get people to prepare?

2. Why is it important to have individuals undertake personal security and preparedness measures?

3. List the categories of items in an emergency preparedness kit.

4. How does a family communication plan work?

5. What is a likely emergency scenario in your community and how should you prepare for it?

NOTES

1. Kathleen J. Turner et al., Facing the Unexpected: Disaster Preparedness and Response in the United States (Washington, DC: Joseph Henry Press, 2001), 34–43.

2. E. L. Quarantelli, “The Study of Disaster Movies: Research Problems, Findings, and Implications” (University of Delaware, Disaster Research Center, 1980), passim.

3. E. L. Quarantelli, “How Individuals and Groups Act During Disasters: Planning and Managing Implications for EMS Delivery,” Preliminary Paper No. 138 (Newark: University of Delaware, Disaster Research Center, 1989), 4–10.

4. Turner et al., Facing the Unexpected, 30.

5. Partnership for Public Warning, “The Emergency Alert System: An Assessment” (February 2004), 26, www.partnershipforpublicwarning.org/ppw/docs/eas_assessment.pdf.

6. Ruth Seydlitz, J. William Spencer, and George Lundskow, “Media Presentations of a Hazard Event and the Public’s Response: An Empirical Examination.” International Journal of Mass Emergencies and Disasters, 12/3 (November 1994): 279–301.

7. Quarantelli, “How Individuals and Groups Act During Disasters,” 25, 27, 31.

8. Defense Threat Reduction Agency, “Human Behavior and WMD Crisis/Risk Communications Workshop” (March 2001), 21.

9. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, “Communicating in a Crisis: Risk Communication Guidelines for Public Officials” (2002), 9–18, 25.

10. This section is adapted from James Jay Carafano, Jennifer Marshall, and Lauren Hammond, “Grassroots Disaster Response: Harnessing the Capacities of Communities,” Backgrounder No. 2094(December 28, 2007), heritage.org/research/reports/2007/12/grassroots-disaster-response-harnessing-the-capacities-of-communities.