Chapter 8
1 The three scopes of motivation for Buddhist practice were pointed out by the sage and scholar Atīsa Dīpānkara Srijñāna in ‘The Lamp to the Path to Enlightenment’ (Bodhipatha-pradīpa). These include the lower motivation of good rebirths (that of relatively low levels of suffering), the middle motivation of liberation from cyclical existence and the higher motivation of complete and perfect awakening as an omniscient knower.
2 The Buddhist term nirvāṇa is used in two contexts. Its lower scope is freedom from suffering (vimukti) and the higher is perfect and complete awakening (saṃbodhi). Commonality is that both of these states are free from saṃsāra.
3 The distortions that arise when experiencing the truth from various frames of reference may be termed in modern terms as ‘cognitive errors’. This concept is further explored in later sections of this chapter in relation to terms like obscuration to omniscience (jñeyāvaraṇa) and confusion.
4 The five aspects of pristine wisdom are mentioned by the Buddha in kāyatraya-avatāra-sūtra. The theme of these five aspects is detailed out further in vajrayāna teachings.
5 Mahāyāna (higher vehicle) refers to schools that focus on the higher scope of motivation—that of saṃbodhi. Many schools (like Theravāda) that primarily focus on the middle scope of lower nirvāṇa—that of vimukti—accepts only the first turning sutras.
6 Prajna-pāramita tradition refers to the scholastic tradition followed in the ancient universities of India like Nalanda, Vikramaśila and Odanḍapuri. This is also the tradition followed by Tibetan Buddhism. Vajrayāna, the tantric tradition of Buddhism is regarded to be part of this.
7 The phrase ‘continuum (santāna) of a person’ is used in Buddhism to refer to the person as an ever-changing stream of various aggregates. It also makes it explicit that person does not refer to a monolithic entity. A related term is mental continuum (citta-santāna) that refers to mind as an ever-changing stream of various mental episodes.
8 The Sanskrit word used for person is pudgala, meaning embodied being. In the Buddhist context, the discussions on psychological models apply not only to human beings, but also to all other sentient beings. Also see endnote 18.
9 Abhidharma-kośa (Treasury of higher knowledge) is an ancient text by the Buddhist scholar Vasubandhu detailing Buddhist teachings as understood by the Sarvāstivādin school of Sanskrit Hinayāna tradition.
10 Abhidharma-samuccaya (Compendium of higher knowledge) is an ancient text by the Buddhist yogi-scholar Asanga detailing Abhidharma teachings from a Yogācāra perspective.
11 Manas is introduced and discussed in the section, ‘Model 3: The eight-fold collection’.
12 Asanga in his treatise named Bodhisatva-bhūmi (part of Yogācārabhūmi-śāstra) states ‘the appearance of objects is known as vijñāna’ and ‘the first conceptualization of these [appearances] is known as citta’. The conceptualization (vikalpa) in this context relates to the basic imputation of the object of cognition through vāsana as explained later in this chapter in connection with emptiness and the context of experience. This is not the grosser conceptualization that forms various additional ideas about the object through the aggregate of formation.
13 This is clarified in the third turning through the phrase ‘svacitta-dṛśya-vikalpa’ (conceptualized appearances to the mind) in the Laṅkāvatāra-sūtra. It does not mean that there is no basis to appearances other than mind. Such an interpretation leads to the mistaken view of the third turning as subjective idealism. It rather means, whatever ‘appears” to mind is not truly existent outside mind. The truth ‘as it is’ that is beyond all conceptual elaboration is apprehended through limitations of citta as something else.
14 It may be noted that the three aggregates presenting subjective aspects, viz., feeling, perception and formations contribute to the mental episodes.
15 In this context, samādhi does not refer to its usual meaning associated with meditative absorption. It refers to the basic stability in mental engagement needed for ascertaining the qualities of an object correctly.
16 Insight meditation (vipaṣyāna) is an integral part of Buddhist practice along with calm-abiding meditation (śamata).
17 The non-linear dynamics of a collection of similar karmic tendencies leading a person into pleasurable and painful states of experience are termed puṅya and pāpa. Such collections can build up exponentially due to mutual reinforcement and due to the fuel that the mind-stream provides to the tendencies continuously.
18 Sentient being refers to a being with mind that can sense suffering and happiness. Also see endnote 8.
19 The Buddha pointed out that all-pervasive suffering of construction (saṃskāradukhata) is present even in the realms of form and formless experiences even though the explicit and gross suffering is absent. This is because these realms of experiences are constructed through many conditions. The struggle for construction is an implicit suffering that one may remain unaware of. In constructed states, one has to constantly struggle to generate supporting conditions. Or else, the state fades away upon exhaustion of supporting conditions like meritorious karma (as like a lamp going off on exhausting oil).