17
The Noetic Process (Citta Vīthi): A Therāvāda Buddhist View
S. R. Bhatt
This chapter aims at analysing psychologically the cognitive process as it is presented in the Therāvāda Abhidhamma tradition which is the earliest tradition of Buddhism and which provides the foundation to all later Buddhist schools. Without sufficient knowledge of Abhidhamma philosophy one cannot properly understand the later developments in Buddhist thought. The inevitable significance of enlightening knowledge (prajñā) in a liberating philosophy like Buddhism need not be pointed out. However, it should be emphasized that the Buddhist theory of knowledge is only a corollary of the Buddhist theory of reality and the Buddhist theory of reality is consciously purported to be directed towards the realization of nirvāṇa (eternal bliss). In this chapter, an attempt will first be made to present the Buddhist approach to reality and thereafter the Buddhist account of the noetic process will be put forth.
Introduction
The varied and multi-faceted Indian philosophical thought is characterized by two broad philosophical tendencies which are antithetical in nature but both of which can be traced in germinal form to the Upaniṣadic thought. One tendency which can be termed as ‘ātmavāda’ or ‘substance-ontology’ has been dominantly presented in the so-called ‘Six systems’ and Jainism, the culmination of which is found in the Advaita Vedānta. The other tendency which is popularly known as ‘anātmavāda’ or ‘no-substance ontology’ finds its advocacy and manifestation in the Buddhist thought. The basic contention bifurcating the two tendencies is the view regarding the ontological status of permanence and change, both of which, though opposite in nature, are given to us in veridical experience, and therefore both claim the status of reality. The substance-ontology advocates the permanence aspect and tries to explain (or explain away) the phenomenon of change. The no-substance ontology, on the contrary, accepts the reality of change alone and explains (or explains away) the experience of permanence as a conceptual super-imposition. Thus, the history of Indian philosophical thought could be approached in terms of the dialectic of these two divergent tendencies.
The substance-ontology revolves around the idea of permanence or abidance as the sole criterion of reality. Accordingly substance which alone is the substratum of all attributes and modes has the sole reality or the primary reality, and the attributes and modes have either an apparent existence or a derivative existence. According to Advaita Vedānta, substance, which is a unitary homogeneous pure consciousness, alone is real and all attributes and modes are phenomenal in the sense that they are mithyā (i.e., neither real nor unreal). The Sāṁkhya system and also the Nyāya–Vaiśeṣika and Mīmāṁsā systems, however, assign some reality to change also in so far as matter is regarded to be subject to mutation whether in the form of evolution from one mass of matter, or in the form of combination of different particles of matter and thereby producing a different or new complex. But the point to be noted is that even in these schools, which display a realistic tendency, the primacy of substance and its permanent essence are emphasized. It may be significant to point out that there has also been another tendency in the school of Jainism wherein the exclusiveness of substance ontology and no-substance ontology has been rejected and equal status is accorded to both permanence and change.
The No-Substance Ontology of Buddhism
Buddhist thought has centred on no-substance ontology. Gautama, the Buddha, who initiated Buddhist thought, was led to philosophizing by an intense longing for the eradication of suffering. He visualized that all suffering is due to ‘tanhā’ (longing) and all longing is due to attachment to the false notion of permanence. He wanted to suggest a way out of the labyrinth of suffering and put forth impermanence or non-substantiality as the key to overcome suffering. The four noble truths, therefore, advocate the idea of impermanence and non-substantiality.
The entire reality which is generally understood in terms of matter and consciousness has been understood by the Buddha as a series of changing moments (kṣaṇa). The word ‘moment’ is only suggestive of the fact that all real or existent is time-embedded. All that exists exists in time. And, therefore, an existence series is identical with time series. The existence series could be physical or psychical or a conglomeration (saṁghāta) of the two. Every series in itself is also a conglomeration. A material entity is a physical conglomeration (bhūta saṁghāta) whereas a mental entity is a psychical conglomeration (citta saṁghāta). A living being is a psycho-physical conglomeration. And since the psychical conglomeration is of four types, a psycho-physical conglomeration is named as pañcaskandha consisting of four psychical and one physical conglomerations. The four psychical conglomerations are: vedanā skandha, saṁskāra skandha, vijñāna skandha and saṁjñā skandha. The purely physical conglomeration is rūpa skandha.
The existence series whether of a physical conglomeration or psychical conglomeration consists of distinct units of existence which are discreet but not independent. They are rather interdependent in the sense that every succeeding unit in the series is causally dependent upon its preceding unit. In order to be real, every preceding unit in the series has to give rise to its succeeding unit. These two ideas are technically known as pratītya samutpāda (dependent origination) and artha kriyā kāritva (casual efficiency) which are complimentary to each other and which provide the corner stone to the entire Buddhist metaphysics. These two ideas constitute the essence of the four noble truths propounded by the Buddha.
The concept of existence series (kṣaṇa santāna) is pivotal to Buddhist metaphysics. It explains the reality of incessant change in terms of the causal and dependent origin of the succeeding from the preceding units in the series. The experience of permanence in the series is also explained on the basis of continuity and dependence. The real is always changing but the change is not at random and is causally regulated. In the case of a human being, the series is psycho-physical having a distinct identity of its own. But this poses the problem of memory, recollection and recognition in every distinct personal identity. Buddhist thought explains these problems in terms of kṣaṇa santāna (existence series). In every psycho-physical series which is unique and self-identical, the succeeding is given rise to by the preceding, and this conglomeration of a five-fold series which begins with the birth of the conglomeration in a particular form, continues till the death of that conglomeration in that form. From birth to death, in this series, there is a constant change and yet there is retention with the possibility of recollection and recognition, on the basis of which the past is retained in the present and handed over to the future. In death the total conglomeration does not cease to exist or does not come to an end, and gets retained so as to give rise to another conglomeration in some other form in the next birth. In this metamorphosis the psychical series is present only in the form of saṃskāras (latent impressions) sustained by karmic forces. It is the karmic forces which determine the nature and form of the next birth. They also determine the pañcaskandha (the five-fold conglomeration) which has to come into existence in the next birth. There is continuity not only within one particular birth, but also from one birth to another birth. Thus in Buddhist thought we find a remarkable explanation of the problems of personal identity, rebirth, and the experience of permanence etc., expressed in the phenomena of memory, recollection and recognition.
There are some interesting implications of the no-substance ontology advocated by the Buddha. The idea of impermanence of reality results in the denial of a permanent and immortal soul. However, this does not mean that there is no eschatology or soteriology in Buddhist thought. The Buddhist account of the destiny of the individual self is conditioned by the ideas of anityatā (impermanence), pañcaskandha (five-fold conglomeration) and santāna (existence series), and accordingly the destiny of the individual self is characterized as attainment of nirvāṇa.
Another implication is in the form of insistence on human autonomy and denial of any supra-human divine agency for helping the human being to attain nirvāṇa. The Buddha spearheaded the Śramaṇa tradition which emphasized self-effort and noble conduct (ārya-aṣṭāṅgika mārga). In this scheme there is no role assigned to any divine or super-human agency. The Buddha always impressed upon his followers to have a critical attitude and an analytic bent of mind. He was opposed to blind faith and that is why he rejected all notions about transcendental entities. However, this does not mean that the Buddha was anti-spiritualist. He had an abiding faith in a moral and spiritual order. And that is why he was not a materialist like Cārvāka.
Noetic Processes in Buddhism
In the background of the aforementioned ontological position we may now turn to the analysis of the noetic process based on Aṭṭhaśālinī of Buddhaghoṣa, a commentary on Dhamma-samgini. The noetic process is technically known as citta-vīthi. Vīthi means path or process and citta means consciousness. All knowledge takes place in and through consciousness.
The Meaning of Abhidhamma1
The word ‘abhidhamma’ is a compound of two words, ‘abhi’ and ‘dhamma’. The prefix ‘abhi’ means ati or atiśaya, meaning to ‘excel’. It is called ‘abhidhamma’ because it excels in exalted wisdom about dhamma (dhammatireka-dhammavisesatthena) (Aṭṭhaśālinī, p. 13). It is regarded as instruction in the ultimate nature of things (abhidhammo nāma paramatthadesanā) (Aṭṭhaśālinī, p. 338). Here dhamma is understood as svabhāva or paramattha, the ultimate reals.2 This is because it enables us to penetrate the superficial to reach the very essence of reality. The ultimate aim of Abhidhamma is to point out the way (mārga) to nibbāna and it is regarded as the teaching of the advanced level meant for those who have already attained a high level of consciousness (Aṭṭhaśālinī, pp. 13, 304, 484, 486, 488). It is contended that Buddha, the Śākya-muni, was the first one to know the essence of things—sammāsambuddho vā pathamataram abhidhammiko (Aṭṭhaśālinī, p. 135). Buddha was not detracted by the blinding glitter of the outer surface of things and penetrated deeper to receive their illuminating glow from within, and was thus regarded as the enlightened one. But he did not confine this enlightenment to himself and disseminated it to those who were competent to receive it. Subsequently, it was passed on by an unbroken chain of teachers. Though the ultimate objective of the Buddha's teachings—Buddha deśanā—is to point out a way to nirvāṇa, the Abhidhamma literature presents a very subtle, deep and extensive analysis of the cognitive processes and mental states conducive to the realization of nirvāṇa. Of course, this does not mean that here we have a systematic and neatly formulated theory of epistemology, but from the account available in this literature such a theory can be culled out.
The Abhidhamma tradition puts an exclusive emphasis on immediate or direct experience rather than an abstract intellection or discursive reasoning. It insists that true (samyak) experience is attainable only in a kuśala (pure or undefiled) citta. That is why the noetic process conducive to samādhi (meditation) leading to nirvāṇa, is put forth in a moral setting.
The citta can be either kuśala (pure) or akuśala (impure) or avyākṛta (neutral). When it is affected by emotional affections and ideational defilements it is akuśala. When it is purged of all these impurities it is known as kuśala citta (Aṭṭhaśālinī, p. 125). Kuśala stands for that which is faultless (samyak), efficient and skilful (arthakriyākāri), and which leads to satisfaction or bliss (tuṣita). Etymologically, kuśala means ku, that is, basal factors and śala, that is, to destroy. So kuśala means that which destroys the basal factors. There is another etymological meaning of the word kuśala, according to which kuśa means knowledge and kuśala is that which curtails, reduces and eradicates all that which is base,3 and enables us to acquire that which is correct or faultless.
Kuśala citta is a purely objective consciousness which is free from all impurities. It alone is a foundation leading to samādhi. Only in a state of samādhi, prajñā arises which leads to nirvāṇa.
In the Abhidhamma tradition there is insistence on having true knowledge based on correct attitude (samyag dṛṣṭi) for the realization of nirvāṇa. This has been practiced by the Buddha himself in four stages which, based on Asanga (Mahāyāna sūtrālaṅkāra 11.3), are described as follows:
- Abhimukha, that is, preparedness to be face to face with reality and with the way and the goal.
- Abhīkṣṇa, that is, discriminating examination of various viewpoints about the reality, the way and the goal.
- Abhibhava, that is, controverting fallacious viewpoints of opponents.
- Abhigati, that is, understanding the correct viewpoint as shown by the Buddha.
According to Abhidhamma all empirical cognition is conditioned by kāma (volition) which can be described as sense-relatedness or intentionality. Kāma has two facets—one pertaining to the object and the other pertaining to the mental state. In every cognitive process there is an object which is intended to be cognized and there is an intention in which an object is intended to be cognized. On the basis of this analysis it can be concluded that every empirical cognitive enterprise is conditioned by an intentionality which is a triune unity of cognitive, affective and conative factors. This may also be characterized as subjectivity. In every empirical cognition there will be subjectivity which is necessarily lurking in the form of “presuppositions”. This presupposition is psychical in nature and it is present in the form of saṁskāra in every cognizing consciousness.
Keeping the above stated central focus of the Buddhist approach to reality, the Abhidhamma literature presents a very subtle and penetrating understanding of human nature and human suffering. The entire human existence is explained under four heads, namely:
In this chapter an attempt is made to analyse the concept of nāma which stands for the citta and the cetasikas. Citta is generally rendered in English as consciousness. Consciousness is defined as ‘everything taken together that has the characteristic of cognizing is to be known as the aggregate of consciousness.’
In Abhidhamma the words mano and vijñāna are also used as synonyms of citta but one can draw a subtle distinction amongst these three in actual usage.
Analysis of the Process of Consciousness
Consciousness in itself is self-enveloped and dormant. It is known as ‘vīthimukta’, and when consciousness gets activated it is known as vīthicitta. The process of consciousness is technically known as citta-vīthi. The cognitive process begins when the cognitive senses receive the reflex of objects—external or internal. The external objects are received through the five outer senses known as pañca-dvāra, and the internal objects are cognized through the mind known as mano-dvāra. For the functioning of each type of course of cognition, there is a distinct process and a specific object.
The cognitive process which apprehends external objects is further classified under ten stages. They are as follows:
- Bhavaṅga: Passive state of mind
- Bhavaṅga-calana: Vibrated passive state of mind
- Bhavaṅga-viccheda: Breaking of passive state of mind
- Pañcadvārāvajjana: Turning to impressions of object
- Indriya vijñāna: Perception
- Sampaticchanna citta: Recipient consciousness
- Santirana citta: Investigating consciousness
- Votthāpana citta: Determining consciousness
- Javana citta: Actively involved consciousness
- Tadālambana citta: Registering consciousness
- Bhavaṅga: It is a passive state of mind, going on smoothly on its own course, quite undisturbed, existing immediately prior to the appearance of any type of object. It is also called atīta bhavaṅga. It is pre-reflective consciousness.
- Bhavaṅga-calana: When an object enters in the range of a cognitive sense, it creates a simple vibration in the smooth flow of mind, just like the falling of a pebble on the calm surface of water in a tank.
- Bhavaṅga-viccheda: Immediately after bhavaṅga-calana the smooth flow of mind is arrested. It ceases to be a passive state and gets disturbed.
- Pañcadvārāvajjana: Āvajjana means alertness or awareness. The cognitive senses become alert to receive the impressions of an object.
- Indriya vijñāna: If the object is a visible one, the object causes a sensation in the eyes. The same is the case with the other cognitive senses.
- Sampaticchanna citta: Immediately after the eye consciousness, the mind attends to the object as something existing outside. It is simply the marking of an object and not determining its details. ‘There is something’ is cognized but ‘what it is’ is not known.
- Santīrana citta: It is attending to the object and determining its nature on the basis of past experience. It is a determining cognition on the basis of past recollection. But at this stage full determination does not take place.
- Votthāpana citta: It denotes the sense of determination. The comparison of the details enables the mind to determine it as such and such.
- Javana citta: It is an attitude of mind towards utilization or rejection of the object. In case the object thus determined is an agreeable one, the mind utilizes it and if it is otherwise, the mind rejects it. It lasts for seven consciousness-moments.
- Tadālambana citta: It literally means functioning on that object. It lasts for two consciousness-moments.
In this way seventeen consciousness-moments are involved in the cognition of an object. These seventeen moments complete the full course of cognition of an external object. It is to be noted that both matter and consciousness are momentary but endurance of matter is seventeen times more than that of consciousness. In other words, one matter-movement equals seventeen consciousness-movements. When an object comes in the range of a sense organ, the course of cognition begins. By the time consciousness undergoes changes seventeen times through different stages, the object remains in the same stage. At the end of seventeen consciousness-moments the full course of cognition is complete and the duration of the object is also over. The object ceases to exist giving rise to its effect. When the object is fully cognized it is called ‘very distinct object’. It may be that the object does not meet with all the ten stages. It is possible that the object comes into existence but does not attract cognitive process at the outset. So there can be an abrupt beginning or an abrupt end. In such a situation the cognition process is not complete and the object is not fully or properly cognized. Thus the object can be clear (vibhūta) or obscure (avibhūta).
These ten stages of cognitive process arise in quick succession, being regulated by the principle of pratītya samutpāda. The preceding and succeeding stages are marked by similarity as they are caused by the same object.
Thus, the total process of cognizing consists of ten stages from bhavaṅga to tadālambana. The first three stages are preliminaries. They stand for mental preparedness for receiving the impressions. The remaining seven are concerning the awareness of the object and are known as cittotpāda (arising consciousness of an object). Bhavaṅga is comparable to deep sleep. It is a lazy state of mind. After the seventeenth moment there is bhavaṅga pāta (cessation of cognitive process or vīthi-bhaṅga).
Manodvāra Vīthi
Manodvāra vīthi, internal objects like thoughts, feelings, sentiments etc., are cognized in a slightly different way as it involves the role of mind only.
The Concept of Citta
The concept of citta plays a very significant role in Buddhist epistemology. Cinoti iti cittam; on the basis of this etymology, citta can be understood as that which builds up its own continuity.4 This means that citta is a complex of several factors or events which occur in succession. These successive events can be named as caitta. There is no separate entity called citta apart from the caittas. In fact, citta is a convenient and conventional term to denote a variety of psychic events in an organized unity. For all practical purposes caittas which are mental states alone, are real and citta is just a fiction (prajñāpti sat).
Manas
Another epistemic term employed by the Abhidhammic tradition is manas. Manas is both a cognitive sense and the receiver of the sense impressions. As a cognitive sense it functions at par with the other five senses. Whereas these five senses namely, the eye, ear, nose, tongue and skin apprehend external objects, mind apprehends internal states. The other function of mind is to receive the sense stimuli and here it comprehends both the objects of its own field and also the objects of the fields of the outer senses. In its overall functioning, mind precedes and succeeds sense perception. It precedes in the form of attending to the sense stimuli and its succeeding is in the form of discrimination and selection of the sense stimuli. It is in this sense that we say, ‘eyes don't see but mind sees it’. That is why the Buddhists use the word ‘door’ for the senses.
In the Abhidhammic tradition perception is described as of two types. One is sensuous and the other is non-sensuous. The sensuous perception is due to five cognitive senses, which have their respective fields of functioning and corresponding objects. Every cognitive sense has its own distinct jurisdiction and class of objects to be cognized. There is no over-stepping and intermingling in their jurisdiction. Nor can they usurp the functioning of the mind which is another factor involved in the process of cognition (Majjhima Nikaya, p. 295).
The non-sensuous perception is yogic perception. It is available only in heightened states of consciousness.
Conclusion
To sum up, the cognitive process is an interplay of the mind with the five senses. Each sense has its own mode of functioning, for example, ‘eye’ has the nature of seeing, its capacity is activated by consciousness along with the totality of causes and conditions including the object, the eye consciousness and accessories like light etc. The object appears, the eyes see and the eye consciousness knows. The process gets completed in what is known as manovijñāna dhātu which consists in the grasping of the object of consciousness.
Before the onset of the cognitive process, citta is in a latent or natural state of existence. It is known as vīthimukta citta or pakkatimano. It is also known as nibbuta citta. Bhavaṅga is such a state of citta. The cognitive process starts with bhavaṅga and ends in bhavaṅga (nibbuta citta). In its functioning, as stated earlier, citta is conditioned by emotional afflictions and ideational defilements but when it is freed from all these then it becomes bodhi citta which is prakṛti prabhāsvara citta (naturally luminous citta).
Classical Texts Quoted
Abhidammakośa
Aṭṭhaśālinī
Mahāyāna sūtrālaṅkāra
Majjhima Nikaya