The first stage: restoration and initial development (1978–1986)

After the ‘Cultural Revolution,’ Deng Xiaoping deeply realized the big gap existing in technology and education compared with foreign countries. He pointed out that sending students overseas should be one of the significant measures to catch up with foreign countries.¹ Even in very difficult times, Deng Xiaoping was determined to allocate a considerable sum of foreign currency to select and dispatch a multitude of overseas students to pursue their study in advanced countries. In July 1978, the MOE released the document ‘Report on Enlarging the Number of Overseas Students Dispatching Abroad’ in which it was pointed out that these students should be selected from three levels of undergraduates, advanced students and postgraduates with majors mainly in natural science. Meanwhile, an appropriate number of students majoring in language, scientific and economic administration, and social sciences were sent abroad to study in order to meet the demand of the development of the national economy, science and technology as well as the new majors and the long-term development of HEIs.

While the government-sponsored students abroad were pursuing their academic studies, various departments, businesses and organizations began to send students abroad in 1981 and by 1987 the latter amounted to 6,569, a number much larger than that of government-funded students, which totalled 2,980.

With the fast increase of government-funded students, the number of students applying for admission to universities abroad at their own expense was on the rise. In January 1981, ‘Interim Provisions on Self-funded Study Abroad,’ the first relevant strategic document after the founding of the PRC, was approved by the State Council, which laid the foundation for the development of self-funded studies.² Afterwards, a series of policies was released and such matters as the qualifications for overseas students were regulated.

Due to the large number of overseas students from 1979 to 1980, with a study length of one year or so, returnees were increasing from 1980, and problems concerning overseas students coming back were put on the agenda. In 1981, the MOE issued the ‘Document on Proper Arrangements of Overseas Returnees’ in which the units were required to keep in close contact with students studying abroad and make great efforts to create conditions for them to return home for work. In order to attract them back and better release their talents, in 1983 the prominent Chinese American physicist Tsung-Dao Lee suggested that postdoctoral research stations be set up with the purpose of providing a good working and research environment for the middle-aged and young intellectuals among whom talent might be chosen during their mobility. The suggestion was adopted by the State Council, followed by the establishment of the Management and Coordination Committee of Postdoctoral Scientific Research Stations. In 1986, two documents were introduced to regulate the pay and fund administration system.

In 1985, the Central Leading Group Office of the Foreign Intellect Introduction, the SEDC and the State Science and Technology Commission submitted the ‘Request for Instruction on Calling for Overseas Doctor Graduates to Return Home to Work Early,’ putting forward the general principle of reforming the assignment system for overseas graduates, i.e., acting on the principle of serving the country and integrating study with application. Mutual choice between both sides is permitted. This strategy, made at the beginning of reform and opening up when market economy was far from being set up, shows the government’s effort to attract overseas intellectuals back by increasing their freedom in job options and widening the employment channels.

From 1978 to 1986, the opening up and cooperation of higher education in China was resumed and regained its initial development. The chief task in this stage was to send students abroad in an organized, planned way, to establish and to consummate the related policies. The main problems existing in this period were the overemphasis on natural sciences, rigid regulations on job choices,³ and non-returning overseas students.

The second stage: adjustment (1986–1991)

Aimed at the above problems, China began to adjust certain policies. In 1986, the ‘Provisional Rules on Overseas Students’ were released, in which the guiding principles were stated to ensure that studying abroad was an important part of the opening-up policy and a significant way to cultivate high-level professional talents. The policy concerning overseas studies would be in accordance with the specific conditions in China, and closely combining with the needs of national production and construction. As far as the disciplines were concerned, emphasis would be put on applied sciences; attention would be paid to fundamental subjects; and development of vocational and technical education would be taken into account as well.

With the channel of studying abroad having been opened and the number of overseas students having expanded, the new studying abroad policy changed into ‘dispatching according to the need, ensuring the quality and integrating study with practical application.’ The staff studying abroad transferred from postgraduates to professional and technical people to pursue advanced studies, and to visiting scholars. Those people would be qualified in their specialized field and foreign language proficiency. At the same time, the selection methods for students going abroad at public expense at various levels were regulated. It was decided to establish a system of signing an agreement with the concerned unit to ensure that overseas staff return at a specific time. It was an important document based on the experiences of the first stage and integrated with the development of overseas education at that time. Meanwhile it was the first regulatory document issued publicly to expound the strategies concerning overseas education.

To attract and encourage more talent to come back to work in China, relevant policies were actively formulated and released. From 1987, China had allocated the huge sum of 10 million yuan research funds in to help returned overseas personnel. Since 1990, China has been taking 20 percent from the overseas fee to support scientific research carried out by returned overseas personnel. Up to 1995, 3,638 people had been supported, with a cost of 119 million yuan. In 1991, 3,110 returned overseas talents were crowned with honors of outstanding contributions by the SEDC and Ministry of Personnel. Scientist Qian Xuesen (Tsien Hsue-shen) was honored with the National Science Contribution Award for Distinguished Scholars. The financial support and awarding policy has played an active role in attracting and stabilizing the returned overseas students.

The third stage: quick development (1992–present)

In 1992, Deng Xiaoping made an inspection trip to the south. During that time, he delivered the speeches which mainly consisted of three aspects:

The principle of ‘Supporting pursuing studies abroad, encouraging returning to the homeland and free to come and go’ was, therefore, confirmed at the Third Plenary Session of the Fourteenth Central Committee of the Party in 1993. This policy systematically reestablished the policy that ‘Education should face and open up to the world’ advanced by Deng Xiaoping at the beginning of China’s reform and opening up. It not only satisfied the need of China’s reform and opening up and the development of China’s market economy, but it strenghtened the relation between providing convenience for citizens to study abroad and their returning home to make contributions after succeeding in studying overseas. The liberal and realistic policy enabled a virtuous circulation of the overseas study programs.

In order to carry out this policy, the state council released the ‘Notice Concerning People Studying Abroad’ in August 1992, in which regulations were prescribed with problems encountered in overseas study and concerns of overseas staff. The guiding principle was that the people studying abroad at public expense had the obligation to serve the country, and short-term service should be performed even if long-term service was impossible. Freedom to go abroad and come back at their own will was guaranteed. Later on, the general principle of ‘Supporting pursuing studies abroad, encouraging returning to the homeland and free to come and go’ had been reiterated on several occasions by the state and party leaders.

Regardless, there were problems concerning overseas study programs, one of the most serious of which was overseas students not returning home. The problems restricted the development of the overseas study programs by reducing the member of high level talents, resulting in the outflow of the limited investment in education of China. In spite of that, progress had been made in the overseas study programs. At this stage, by taking the internationally accepted methods as reference, the SEDC carried out an all-around reform on the selection and administration practice of studying abroad at public expense. In 1994, ‘Suggestions on the Implementation of Outlines of Educational Reform and Development’ was released by the State Council. It pointed out that an administrative committee for overseas funds should be set up to seek a new mechanism of enrollment, selection and administration of both international students studying in China and Chinese students studying abroad, thus legalizing the internationalization practice of education. In 1996, the China Scholarship Council was established and full scale trial methods of selecting students studying abroad at public expense were adopted. A quite fair competitive system was implemented to choose people studying abroad at public expense known as ‘Individual application, expert evaluation, equal competition, admitting the best, dispatching after signing up and breach compensation.’ As a result, the function of the government changed and an increased efficiency was achieved. In 1993, China adopted a more liberal policy for people studying abroad at their own expense, and since then the number of self-funded people studying abroad has been increasing dramatically.

In the past decade or more, great importance has been attached to Chinese overseas programs. The major concern of the annual symposium of the national studying abroad association held in 2002 was on the changes and development of the talent market after China joined the WTO, and the orientation and coping strategies in the new situation. The purpose was to provide strategic advice for future development. In 2003, the MOE set up the Supervision Office of Foreign Education belonging to the Department of International Cooperation and Exchanges. According to the MOE regulation, all the affairs concerned, including Chinese–foreign cooperative schooling, intermediary services of self-funded overseas study, schooling of the children of foreigners, Chinese–foreign education examinations, and international exhibition, etc., should be supervised by the office. The MOE would simplify the vetting procedures. Self-funded overseas university students and various personnel with college degrees or above within a time limit of their service period would no longer undergo the qualification verifications and be charged with higher education training expenses.

The Chinese government issued a series of favorable policies and measures to attract more talented overseas students to come back and serve the motherland in various ways. Spiritual encouragement, material rewards, and system guarantees were put into practice. In April 1995, the Investment Office for Overseas Students was established by the Chinese Service Center for Scholarly Exchange of the SEDC in order to encourage people studying abroad to serve the country in various ways and offer services to attract capital and investment from overseas personnel and introduce technologies and projects. In 1999, the first China Hi-tech Fair was held in Shenzhen in which a special exhibit section was set up for overseas students, and its volume of business surpassed 2.1 billion yuan. The demonstration and trial construction of National Overseas Staff Pioneer Parks was initiated by the MOE, the Ministry of Science and Technology, the Ministry of Personnel and the State Foreign Expert Bureau in 2001, with the initial 11 Pioneer Parks chosen to enter the National Park. In July 2000, upon the approval of the Chinese Party Central Committee and the State Council, the Ministry of Personnel released the ‘Suggestions on Encouraging the Top Overseas Talents to Return to Work,’ which made a relatively big breakthrough in strategic regulations on post qualifications, salary and allowance level, scientific research funds, housing, insurance, visiting relatives, employment of family members and schooling of their children. After that, the MOE issued a series of documents attracting overseas students to come back and serve the country as the MOE ‘Administrative Regulations on Initial Scientific Research Funding for Returned Overseas Students.’ In 2001, the Ministry of Personnel implemented the ‘Administrative Regulations on Overseas Staff Pioneer Parks’ so as to attract and help overseas students open up their own business, cultivate new and high-tech enterprises, and to encourage sci-tech entrepreneurs with innovation capability and international competitiveness. A lot of provinces in China, one after another, unveiled favorable policies for Overseas Staff Pioneer Parks to attract and support overseas students to come back and start businesses. It is estimated that 115 Overseas Staff Pioneer Parks had been set up by the end of 2006, 5,176 enterprises were being run by returning overseas talents and 91 talented people were awarded by the government and the state.⁴ In 2001, the MOE, the Ministry of Personnel, the Ministry of Science and Technology, the Ministry of Public Security, and the Ministry of Finance jointly issued the ‘Suggestions on Encouraging Overseas Students to Return to Serve the Country in Various Ways.’ It stipulated that overseas people could work for the development of the motherland by means of part-time employment, cooperative research, trust research, talent cultivation and intermediary services, etc. Related departments in the country would create conditions for Chinese overseas students to work for the country better by fund input, remuneration payment, exclusive knowledge and technology rights protection, creating better working and living conditions, providing convenience for going abroad and coming back, personnel service and propagation and complement, etc. With the implementation of the strategy of rejuvenating the country through science and education and the adjustment of the national industrial structure, quickening innovation in science and technology and the rapid development of national economy and society, the room and fields for overseas people to serve the country were broadened.

The policy on overseas study has undergone continual adjustments and improvements since 1978 when Deng Xiaoping brought forward the decision to increase the number of people studying abroad. The general trend is that the policy is getting more and more liberal and has become an important part and a symbol of the opening-up policy. A virtuous pattern of studying abroad has been formed.

According to the statistics, since the reform and opening up 30 years ago, the number of people studying abroad has been 1.21 million, of which 0.32 million have been back.⁵ Figure 5.1 shows that the number of people studying abroad and coming back has greatly increased, especially in the 21st century. In 1978, there was a total of 860 people studying abroad, with 248 people coming back after completing their studies. In 2008, the total number of people studying abroad and returning amounted to 179,800 and 69,300 respectively.⁶ In fields of education, science and research, 77 percent of university presidents, 84 percent of academicians of CAS, 75 percent of academicians of CAE, 62 percent of doctoral supervisors, and 71 percent of directors of National Teaching Centers have experience of studying abroad. More than two thirds of the candidates for the Trans-Century Training Program are talents returned from abroad. In 1998, the Cheung Kong Scholars Program was started and 410 scholars who have studied abroad have been appointed Distinguished Professors and Chair Professors ever since, accounting for 91 percent of the total. A large group of people who returned from abroad are working in various businesses, finances and government departments, etc. Overseas talents have greatly promoted the progress of China by returning to work or other duties and so have been fully acknowledged by the whole society.

Stage one: the initial stage (1979–1989)

At the beginning of reform and opening up, there were only a very small number of international students coming to study in China. In 1978, although the international students came from 72 countries all over the world, there were only 1,236 people altogether, among whom 1,178 students enjoyed the government scholarship provided by China, and 58 were exchange students who came from developed countries with scholarships. There were no self-funded international students, and universities which accepted international students were quite limited at that time.

Expanding the scale of foreign people coming to China for study was included in the decision to open up further to the outside world. It was in step with the reality of China at that time and with the series of effective policies adopted after the foundation of the PRC. It also offered good opportunities for foreign students to come and study in China. In order to implement the decision, a series of measures was taken and a number of documents were issued. In 1978, international students were enrolled for the first time, after they took examinations abroad, which to some extent guaranteed the quality of international students. In 1979, the State Council approved the ‘Request for Instruction on the Charging Standards of the Self-funded International Students,’ making self-funded studying in China possible. In 1980, the MOE released the ‘Notice on HEIs Offering Short-term Chinese Training Courses for Foreigners,’ which greatly promoted the development of short-term education in the Chinese language for foreigners and exerted a profound influence on international student education in China. In 1989, the MOE officially issued a document to entitle HEIs to enroll self-funded foreign students and delegated the power of approval of these HEIs to the educational administrative departments of provinces, autonomous regions and municipalities. The number of international students enrolled was determined by HEIs themselves and would not be included in the National Enrollment Plan. The document greatly stimulated the HEIs’ initiative to develop international student education.

At this stage, the number of international students studying in China was increasing steadily, especially students coming from first and second world countries. Meanwhile, the number of self-funded students was increasing too. According to incomplete statistics, there were 300 self-funded international students studying in China in 1979 and the number grew to 2,500 in 1989, a sevenfold increase. Within 11 years, there was a total of 26,000 self-funded students studying in China.⁸

Stage two: rapid progress (1990–until now)

Since 1990, China’s exchanges with other countries in various fields have been increased dramatically. The administrative system on international students was reformed. The China Scholarships Council was set up, the single scholarship system was changed, and Chinese Language Qualifying Test (HSK) was adopted. Meanwhile, problematic regulations and systems were improved upon, and an annual appraisal system was established, to which students funded by Chinese Government Scholarships should be subject. All that enabled the work concerning international students studying in China to become legalized, scientificalized, and regularized.⁹

To promote the development of international student education, a conference was held by the SEDC in February 1998, at which the guiding principle of ‘Furthering the reform, improving the administration, guaranteeing the quality and developing actively and steadily’ was established. On 31 January 2000, the ‘Administrative Rules on the Admission of International Students by Colleges and Universities’ was released. This document pointed out that HEIs should follow the above principle when admitting and cultivating international students. It also stated that Chinese HEIs could offer academic degree education and non-diploma education to international students whose numbers would not be limited by the national enrollment plan; HEIs might also, at their own discretion, admit international exchange students and self-funded students; the Chinese government would set up a Chinese Government Scholarship for international students; and departments and units concerned would offer help for the regular study and practical training of international students. Later on, the principle was changed to a working strategy of ‘expanding the scale, optimizing the structure, regularizing the administration and guaranteeing the quality.’

To implement the ‘National Plan Outline for Medium and Long-term Education Reform and Development (2010–2020),’ to enhance the Chinese–foreign education cooperation and exchanges, and to promote the healthy development of international student education, on 21 September 2010 the MOE released the ‘Plan for International Student Education in China,’ which pointed out that the ultimate goal for China by 2020 was to develop China into the biggest destination in Asia for students studying abroad; to establish a service system to go with China’s international status, education scale and level; to train a great number of high-level teaching staff; to build university groups and discipline groups with distinguished features and to cultivate high-quality international students graduating with a good understanding of China and friendly attitude to China. The major tasks were to expand the number of international students studying at mainland universities, primary, middle and high schools to 0.5 million by 2020, among which 0.15 million would be at HEIs receiving degree education; to gradually increase the number sponsored by the Government Scholarship to meet the need of national development and strategy; and to balance the distribution of international students’ nationalities and levels.¹⁰

On the 60th anniversary of acceptance of international students studying in China held in September 2010 in Beijing, state counselor Liu Yandong stressed that the development of international student education should be based on a perfect service system and high quality education to promote international cultural exchanges and enhance friendship with people throughout the world.¹¹

The Chinese Government Scholarship is provided by the China Scholarship Council to 150 countries in accordance with educational exchange agreements assigned by the Chinese government and governments of other countries or international organizations. In the selection and administration of international students, the idea of ‘deepening the reform, improving the management, guaranteeing the quality and developing steadily and prudently’ has been consistently followed, the administrative systems of teaching and lodging have been reformed and the education quality has been improved. With the good reputation and better quality of international student education and China’s higher education, the China Scholarship Council constantly gained access to letters from and talks with foreign countries and institutions and was entrusted to managing and carrying out government scholarship projects of other countries. So far such projects mainly include the Vietnam Education and Training Scholarship, Pakistan Higher Education Commission Scholarship, Tanzania Government Scholarship and a scholarship set by the Thailand Civil Service Commission.¹² At the same time, the Chinese government always keeps exploring new channels for international students to study in China, such as calling for Chinese enterprises and foreign governments to sponsor scholarships; improving circumstances and the education quality and perfecting the expert consulting mechanism; persisting in the training system of staff in charge of international student management and doing excellent work in publicity and with foreign graduates. All that has been done makes the social benefits of China’s international student education multiply daily.

Up to May 2009, 148 HEIs in China were qualified to enroll international students granted a Chinese Government Scholarship.¹³ International students could be sponsored by these scholarships which ranged from scholarships for certain countries and for special programs, to local government scholarships, higher education institution scholarships, enterprise scholarships and foreign government scholarships. In 2008, the investment of Chinese central finance in international student education increased substantially to 500 million yuan, sponsoring a total of 13,516 students, an increase of 3,365 or 33.15 percent compared with 2007. The total number of self-funded students was 209,983, an increase of 24,631 or 13.29 percent. According to the plan, there would be about 20,000 international students studying in China under a Chinese Government Scholarship.¹⁴

China expanded the scale of international students studying in China from both the third world countries and developed countries. All the universities arranged their studies attentively and on an equal footing. Up to September 2010, there had been 1.69 million international students from 190 countries and regions ever studying in China, and there are 0.24 million at present.¹⁵ Many of them went back to their motherlands and became the core force of government, culture, economy and education circles after finishing their studies in China. According to incomplete statistics, among international graduates completing their study in China, over 30 have taken leading positions at ministerial level in their homelands, another 20 have become ambassadors to China, and over 30 have been counselors of embassies of different countries in China who serve as the bridge and ties of Chinese–foreign friendship all over the world. International student education has been an important platform to cultivate outstanding talents for other countries, especially the developing countries, and opens an indispensable window for the outside world to get to know China. It also serves as an important channel to promote the pragmatic cooperation of Chinese–foreign education.

With HSK Certificate, international students could apply for admission to schools and universities in China. In June 2010, the MOE released the notice that international students studying in China were allowed to register with the test report of the New HSK. The passing score of 180 for Level 4, Level 5 and Level 6 of the New HSK corresponds to Elementary Certificate Level C, Intermediate Certificate Level C and Advance Certificate Level C of the old HSK respectively. These are the Chinese language levels the students who have finished one year preparatory training courses should reach to qualify for a Chinese Government Scholarship to pursue their study in science, engineering, agriculture, medicine (except Chinese medicine), economics, law, management, and education. HEIs can make their own decisions on the standard of Chinese for self-funded international students by referring to this standard. Foreign students with an HSK or test report of the New HSK could register for undergraduate programs.¹⁶

As opposed to many developed countries who make attracting international students an industry, China draws international students for purposes other than making money, including strengthening the international exchanges and cooperations, making China better known to the world, and creating a good atmosphere for the construction of a harmonious society. This can be seen from the tuition fees of international students. Compared with other countries, China sets a rather low tuition fee level. The number of international students comprises a very small portion of China’s HEI students and Chinese HEIs have never taken international student education as a main source for raising money.¹⁷

Confucius Institute

Based on the experience of spreading the native culture and language from some institutions abroad, the Confucius Institute is a non-profit education organization which aims at spreading Chinese culture and teaching the Chinese language. Confucius Institutes are normally affiliated to overseas universities and research institutes and their most important task is to offer standardized and authoritative textbooks and the most regular and formal channel for Chinese teaching and learning.

In order to spread Chinese culture, the Chinese government set up the China National Office for Teaching Chinese as a Foreign Language (NOCFL), or Hanban (Office of Chinese Language for short) in 1987, by which the Confucius Institute was undertaken. This institute upholds the concept of ‘valuing peace and harmony most’ and ‘striving for harmony but value difference’ with the objective of promoting the exchange and integration between Chinese culture and other cultures so as to construct a harmonious world of enduring peace and common prosperity.

The Confucius Institute headquarters were set up in Beijing on April 9, 2007. All the Confucius Institutes abroad are branches established by Chinese–foreign joint cooperations, aiming at helping more foreigners to study the Chinese language and Chinese culture. The first Confucius Institute was set up in South Korea in 2004 and China has started many more by cooperating with local universities. Up to November 2009, China had established a total number of 554 institutes with 282 Confucius Institutes and 272 Confucius Classrooms in 88 countries and regions. Among the Confucius Institutes, 70 were in 27 Asian countries, 21 in 15 African countries, 94 in 29 European countries, 87 in 11 American countries and 10 in 2 Oceanian countries. The 272 Confucius Classrooms were in 28 countries (there were only Confucius Classrooms, not Confucius Institutes in Burma, Mali, Bahamas and Tunisia), 27 of which were in 10 Asian countries, 4 in 4 African countries, 34 in 7 European countries, 205 in 6 American countries and 2 in one Oceanian country.¹⁸

At present, the number of people studying Chinese has reached 30 million. Nearly 3,000 universities have set up Chinese courses and the total number of students attending these courses has reached 5 million. There are 114 HSK centers in 48 countries and regions and the number of overseas examinees amounts to 420,000 people. Textbooks for Chinese learning have been compiled and published in eight languages (English, German, French, Arabic, Russian, Thai, Indonesian and Korean) and given as presents to some countries and regions. In July 2005, the Chinese government held the First World Conference on Chinese Language, symbolizing a new stage in the spread of the Chinese language.

In fact, the demand for Confucius Institutions is on the rise, which also promotes its development. For instance, in the United States, there were over 20,000 students studying Chinese in public elementary and middle schools in 2004, and the number increased to 50,000 in 2006. The survey done by the College Board of the USA indicated that 2,500 high schools were willing to include Chinese as a course in the Advance Placement. As a result, 40 states out of 50 in the USA have made requests for establishing Confucius Institutes. It is the same in European countries. Since 2001, HSBC Bank of Britain has spent a large sum of money annually initiating programs to support Chinese language education and Chinese programs for young talented students. But the bank saw a brighter prospect of sustainable development in Confucius Institutes. Therefore, the top policy makers of the bank paid a visit to the Minister of the MOE in Beijing. Soon afterwards, coalescing with Swire Group, British Petroleum, Deloitte Touche Tohmatsu and the London School of Economics and Political Science, the bank started a Confucius Institute.

Chinese–foreign University Presidents Forum

On September 9, 1992, Jiang Zemin visited Beijing Normal University and wrote an inscription, ‘all excellent production of human civilization should be used for reference and assimilated in order to compose a new page for Chinese education.’ Guided by this instruction, Chinese education made great strides in progress in international exchanges. Chinese–foreign forums have been held four times, with the aim of ‘building leadership capacity and envisioning university future.’

The First Chinese–foreign University Presidents Forum was held in Beijing in July 2002. During the 10-day forum, presidents and experts from 17 top universities from the United States, Great Britain, France, Germany, Japan, and Hong Kong, as well as 6 in-post presidents from mainland China made important speeches on the reform and development and carried out various forms of discussions and exchanges. All the scholars regarded the forum as a golden opportunity to exchange ideas and learn from each other. Chinese presidents felt that they reaped more from it than by going broad.

The Second Chinese–foreign University Presidents Forum was held in Beijing in August 2004. Mr Zhou Ji, the Minister of MOE, invited prominent presidents and experts in the education field from the United States, Great Britain, France, Germany, Japan, Russia and Hong Kong to participate in this forum. China’s representatives included presidents from 72 universities directly under the MOE; universities under the State Commission of Science and Technology for the National Defence industry; 211 project universities under other central ministries and local authorities; and local universities co-supported by the MOE – a total of 13 from west China and 5 from the capital. This forum centered on the two themes of ‘the strategic development of universities’ and ‘university scientific research and scientific achievement transformation.’

The Third Chinese–foreign University Presidents Forum was held in Shanghai in July 2006, with the theme ‘university innovation and service.’ This was attended by 15 presidents of well-known universities from more than a dozen countries, 6 presidents from Hong Kong as well as 123 presidents from Mainland China.

The curtain of the Fourth Chinese–foreign University Presidents Forum fell in Nanjing on 4 May 2010. The theme was ‘improving quality of talent cultivation at universities.’ This forum was more varied, colorful and open. Not only were entrepreneurs invited to attend and communicate at the forum but university teachers and students could also be present and ask the presidents questions. It was a practice that had never been tried before.

The Chinese–foreign University Presidents Forum is a senior debate about university spirit and innovative ideas. It creates a platform for Chinese and foreign presidents to share wisdom and build consensus. On this platform, more and more agreements have been reached as to what good education is, what outstanding universities are and what excellent talent is. As far as Chinese presidents are concerned, a more specific sense of direction has been achieved on how to build universities with Chinese characteristics.

In addition to the Chinese–foreign University Presidents Forum, various platforms for regional cooperation were established, such as the Chinese-African Education Ministers Forum, the Chinese-European Higher Education Forum and the Asian Education Beijing Forum, and a more efficient mechanism of regular exchange has been formed. The opening and internationalization of China’s education has entered a stage of mutual benefit, mutual success and sharing with the world.

University forums

On June 25, 1998, the US President William Jefferson Clinton paid an official visit to China. The Chinese government agreed to the requirement of the United States that Clinton make a speech at Peking University. On June 29, more than 400 teachers and students gathered to listen to the speech. In 2002, Vladimir Putin, former president of Russia, delivered a speech at a Peking University forum.

It is a great and unprecedented policy in the history of Chinese universities in their exchanges with other countries or even in the history of Chinese–foreign exchanges to take the university forum as an important place for talks and communication. Through inclusive platforms as university forums, open China provides heads of countries of different social systems opportunities to express themselves freely.

Peking University receives the greatest number of foreign statesmen. As is reported by the International Cooperation Department of Peking University, 29 foreign statesmen have visited the university, among whom 23 delivered speeches. More than 10 Nobel Prize winners delivered speeches there as well. Since 2001, presidents from more than 10 world top universities, such as Moscow University, Cambridge University, Yale University and Stanford University led delegations to visit Peking University and made speeches there.

Apart from Peking University, China’s well-known universities such as Tsinghua University and Fudan University have also hosted many important foreign statesmen and offered them chances to deliver speeches at their will. It is said that Chinese universities have become a significant forum to boost the construction of a harmonious world.

Meanwhile, developed countries opened their universities for Chinese government leaders to give speeches, which enabled Chinese leaders to publicize the reform and opening-up policy and build a platform to enhance the influence of China in the world. Jiang Zemin, Hu Jintao, Zhu Rongji, and Wen Jiabao have delivered speeches in renowned universities abroad.

On 16 November 2005, university presidents from home and abroad gathered in Beijing to attend the Beijing Forum 2005 and had heated discussions on the theme ‘the role of universities in constructing a harmonious society.’ The Deputy Secretary-General of the United Nations, Joseph Herbert Reed, on behalf of the former Secretary-General Kofi Annan, stated that the ‘Beijing Forum made great contributions to the promotion of academic and knowledge exchange as well as the development of Asia-Pacific regions and the whole world.’

Attracting advanced school-running resources from abroad

In 1977, under the condition of having limited foreign exchange reserves, China allocated $100,000 in foreign currency for Chinese Embassies abroad to buy textbooks from advanced countries such as the United States, Britain, France and Japan, and set up exchange centers for foreign textbooks. At that time, the ‘Cultural Revolution’ had just come to an end and there was a critical shortage of teaching staff. Deng Xiaoping decided to introduce textbooks, mainly on natural science, from abroad because it was impossible for Chinese teachers and scholars to compile textbooks themselves. For one thing, time was short and limited; for another, influenced and ideologically imprisoned by the ‘Cultural Revolution,’ Chinese textbook compilers might not have had an up-to-date vision required by that time for the development of China. It has been proven that it was of great necessity to introduce those textbooks for promoting the development of Chinese education and accelerating the cultivation of talents. In 1977, Deng Xiaoping pointed out that, while compiling textbooks, the advanced methods of foreign countries must be included and made applicable to Chinese practice, especially those in fields of natural sciences.¹⁹

Apart from introducing textbooks from abroad, the departments and institutions concerned strengthened the corporation with famous foreign publishing houses involved in research and development. One example was the cooperation between (China) Higher Education Press and (Britain) Macmillan Publishers Limited, in accordance with which English experts compiled the college English textbook Modern English for China. It was a commencement of Chinese–foreign cooperation in book writing and publishing since the reform and opening up of China.

After the formal reinstatement of China in the World Bank in 1980, China obtained its first loan from the World Bank in 1981, which was employed to promote education. So far, over $2 billion of funds from the World Bank have been applied to the development of Chinese education, which greatly accelerated and expanded the opening up of education in China.

To foster the educational cooperation with international non-governmental organizations, the Chinese Education Association for International Exchange was established in September 1984. Meanwhile, a multitude of foreign teachers and experts were invited to recruit in teaching and cooperative scientific research in reply to the demand. The ‘Action Plan for Vitalizing Education for the 21st Century’ released in 1999 encouraged Chinese HEIs to set up the special post of Distinguished Professor, whose recruitment was open to people at home and abroad in order to strengthen the international academic exchange. Consequently, a group of reputed scholars were employed as experts and professors at Chinese HEIs. Up to 2007, China had established good cooperative relationships with over 300 government agencies, international organizations, world famous universities and non-governmental organizations in more than 60 countries and regions; 370 foreign or overseas institutions had been certified by the Chinese government to qualify for organizing activities of international exchange of talents in China; China has successfully held various international talent exchange conferences and has been actively promoting the construction of the international talent market; there were 17 international talent submarkets all over China and a foreign talent fair had been successfully held; and moreover, the Marco Polo Award and the Yang Huang Award had been issued by the Chinese government to foreigners and overseas Chinese for their contributions to the international exchange of talents.²⁰ In 2010, 77 units were awarded ‘the Demonstration Units for Foreign Intellectual Introduction.’²¹

Introducing foreign intellectual resources

While trying to encourage Chinese overseas students to return home, China has always considered introducing foreign experts and scholars as a significant component of reform and opening-up policy and a long-term strategy to promote construction and development. To meet the requirements of reform and opening up, reinforcing international exchange of education and culture and sending a large number of students studying abroad, and to solve the problems of shortage of foreign language teachers and talent with a good command of foreign languages as well as the low level of foreign language pedagogy, China invited a number of language experts at the beginning of the reform and opening up. Based on statistics of 1979, the foreign experts and teachers invited by the MOE that year numbered 143, among whom 117 were long-term appointments. In July 1983, Deng Xiaoping pointed out that introducing foreign intellectuals should be an important and long-term strategy. Under his instruction, the Central Committee of the CPC and the State Council soon released several documents, stipulating explicitly the significance, emphasis, organization structure, working system, treatment, financial assurance and working procedure of foreign intellectual involvement. A leading group was set up and hosted a series of activities, and as a result, a considerable number of well-known foreign experts were invited to China and an efficient working team of foreign intellectual support was formed.

In the 1980s, the severe shortage of foreign teachers was to some extent eased. China began to adjust the specialty structure of foreign intellectuals, gradually increasing the number of science and engineering experts and introducing experts needed by key and urgent projects for the Chinese economic and social development.

At the national working conference on hiring foreign experts and teachers for the 8th Five-year Plan in 1989, the guiding principle of ‘persisting in the reform and opening up, controlling the scale appropriately, adjusting the specialty structure, guaranteeing the key programs and urgent need, improving hiring quality, strengthening scientific management and striving for the best results’ was adopted.

During the 9th Five-year Plan (1996–2000), the principle of recruiting foreign experts was reformulated to ‘persisting in the reform and opening up, expanding the scale moderately, optimizing the specialty structure, improving hiring quality, highlighting key projects, guaranteeing the urgent need, strengthening the management and striving for effectiveness, and striving to cultivate cross-century talents for the national economic and social development and the long-term objectives of 2010.’ Accordingly, emphasis for hiring foreign experts was laid on the construction of key disciplines and majors, new disciplines, key laboratories and key research projects. Employment quality was improved and the academic structure of the international experts and teachers was optimized.

Entering the 21st century, the overall environment for introducing foreign talents was greatly improved. The national working conference on talent was held in 2003 and the documents issued thereafter attached great importance to introducing foreign intellectuals and attracting and hiring high-level overseas expertise, and saw it as an important part to implement the strategy of vitalizing the country with talents. In 2006, the State Administration of Foreign Experts Affairs released the 11th Five-year Plan for Foreign Intellectual Introduction, and the principle of foreign expert recruitment changed into a ‘self-based, demand-based, priority-given and effectiveness-oriented principle.’ The guiding principle of implementing the strategy of building up the strength of the country with talented people is always a significant characteristic of our country. Meanwhile, China decided to introduce high-level and urgently needed talents and to tap into international expertise to back up intellectually the development of China.

Chinese–foreign cooperation in school running

In 1995, the ‘Provisional Regulations on Chinese–foreign Cooperation in School Running’ was released and played an important role in regulating Chinese–foreign cooperation in school running. However, some items did not correspond with the relevant rules of the World Trade Organization. In 2001, China became a full member of WTO and in March 2003, the ‘Regulations of the People’s Republic of China on Chinese–foreign Cooperation in School Running’ was released officially by the State Council. There are altogether three legislative principles. First, regulations should conform to the rules of the WTO and the education commitment made by the Chinese government, and introduction of advanced education resources from abroad should be encouraged. Second, the national education sovereignty must be guaranteed to ensure the implementation and execution of guiding education principles. Third, a more complete admittance and supervision system should be made to enhance Chinese–foreign cooperation in school running. The regulations require that the running of cooperative schools between Chinese and foreign education institutions in China should exclude education with special features such as compulsory education, military, politics and Communist Party schools and enroll mainly Chinese citizens with the objectives of introducing high-quality education resources, learning beneficial teaching and administrative experience, promoting the reform and opening up of Chinese education, innovating the talent-cultivation pattern, increasing education selectivity and variety, improving teaching, research and management level, strengthening the construction of disciplines and specialties, accelerating the cultivation of high-level innovative practical talents and increasing the international competitiveness of Chinese education. Based on the principle of ‘expanding opening up, regulating school running, administrating according to law and promoting development,’ the Chinese government encourages and propels Chinese–foreign cooperative schools in higher education, vocational education, and disciplines urgently needed by the national economic and social development.

Data from the Department of International Cooperation and Exchanges of the MOE show that the scale of Chinese–foreign cooperative schools has been greatly expanded during the past 20 years. The level has been raised and the forms varied, covering 26 provinces in Mainland China except Tibet, Qinghai and Xinjiang. Up to 2009, the Chinese government has approved more than 1,000 Chinese–foreign cooperation projects and institutions, distributing in more than 20 provinces, autonomous regions and municipalities. Surveys showed that cooperative school organization had innovated a new school-running mechanism, accelerating the education and teaching reform, enriching education supply, satisfying a variety of public education demands, and broadening the channel of talent cultivation, cultivating a group of specialized talents.

However, there are many problems which need to be solved, one of which is being profit-driven. There is a conflict between public service and profit making in higher education which hinders the realization of the ideal of public benefit through school cooperation. The quality of higher education resources introduced from abroad is uneven and there are loopholes in enrollment management such as a deficiency in the academic degree authentication system. Some diplomas are awarded without accreditation either of their own countries or of authoritative institutions. Consequently, both the quality and reputation of Chinese–foreign cooperation in school running are seriously degraded.

Chinese–foreign cooperative school running faces many challenges. One is how to cultivate the multitude of high-quality talents that are urgently needed for the development of China through cooperation, such as expertise required by multi-national corporations. In order to solve this problem, Chinese–foreign cooperative school running should probe into the talent cultivation system, mechanism and approaches. Then the problem is how to innovate the cooperative school-running system and approach and how to innovate the pattern of talent cultivation. Many countries have exerted great efforts to introduce and tap into high-quality education resources. Facing the new situation, China should take new strides in introducing and applying high-quality education resources, elevating the level of school running and promoting the ‘going out’ of Chinese education.

To regulate Chinese–foreign cooperative school running, the MOE carried out a pilot assessment. Projects of this kind in Tianjin, Liaoning, Jiangsu and Henan were the first to undergo evaluation in 2009. The assessment will gradually spread all over the country when the data is accumulated and the criteria and procedure of evaluation completed.

International education cooperation

The opening up of education should be emphasized in two aspects: going out and coming in. It is incomplete only to focus on one side while neglecting the other. Chinese education should face the whole world, which means serving Chinese reform and economic and social development on the one hand and helping to make China better known to the world and contributing to the construction of a more harmonious world on the other. Since the reform and opening up, China has been persistent in carrying out the educational and cultural exchanges with the world by means of both ‘going out’ and ‘coming in.’ In this way, Chinese national image and soft power have been greatly improved.

In October 1971, with the resumption of China’s legitimate seat at the UN, China’s legitimate seat at the United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) was resumed subsequently as well. However, it was not until 1978 that China signed the memorandum of cooperation with UNESCO and started to promote cooperation in education, science and culture. In 1978, China established the National Committee of UNESCO.

From the fall of 1978, China began to send delegations led by ministerial-level officials to attend important specialized conferences held by UNESCO. The UNESCO Courier, the magazine of UNESCO, was translated into Chinese and published in China and senior experts were sent to attend meetings of the consultative team of UNESCO. Thereafter, the cooperation between China and UNESCO became pragmatic and efficient.

According to incomplete statistics, since 1978 vice-ministers or their superiors at the MOE have been sent to attend regional educational conferences held by UNESCO, including the 37th to 45th International Conference on Education, the Asia-Pacific Regional Conference of Ministers of Education and Ministers of Economic Planning, the International Conference on Regional Convention of Academic Education, Diploma and Degree Recognition in Asia-Pacific Areas, and the Asia-Pacific Regional Conference on Higher Education, and made a great contribution to the promotion of educational cooperation among Asia and the Pacific regions.

Since 1978, tapping into the intellectual and capital resources provided by UNESCO, China has held a series of international symposiums and selectively invited some well-known principals from educational departments of different nations to carry out discussions on common and key issues concerning educational development in China and the world.

Based on the take-and-give principle toward international cooperation and as long as conditions and abilities were allowed, China initiated some projects to train teaching personnel for the developing countries and to provide scholarships for students coming to study in China from African countries and countries surrounding China. In September 1994 in Baoding, Hebei province, together with UNESCO, the Chinese government set up the International Research and Training Center on Rural Education that catered for developing countries. Many educational officials and experts from the Asia-Pacific region and African countries have been invited to attend training seminars there. Meanwhile, the Great Wall Scholarship is provided by the MOE to UNESCO to subsidize foreign students studying in China.²²

By enforcing cooperation with international organizations including UNESCO, China has been strengthening and perfecting the cooperative and consultative mechanism with other countries. A more mature government-funded overseas studying system has been formed. In addition, more effort has been made and a better environment has been established to attract foreign students to come to study in China so that both the levels and proportions of foreign students are expanded. Foreignrelated laws and policies such as ‘Regulations of the People’s Republic of China on Chinese–foreign Cooperation in School Running’ have been implemented and great importance has been attached to the promotion of the Chinese language to the world. The establishment of Confucius Institutes overseas makes Chinese more broadly used all over the world and Chinese learning has become part of the national education system in more countries. Chinese education has become and will still be an important force to foster the construction of a harmonious world.

By surveying the difficult 30-year history of the reform and opening up, it is not hard to find the unprecedented progress made in the exchanges and cooperation of Chinese higher education with the outside world as far as scale, scope and level are concerned. Generally speaking, a one-way to two-way and small-scale to large-scale development trend of the international exchanges and cooperation of Chinese higher education have begun to take form and a multidimensional, large-scale, multilevel, multichannel, multitype and wide-ranging pattern of international exchange has formed. Up to 2007, China had undergone education exchange and established cooperative relationships with 188 countries and 28 international organizations. Apart from that, China had set up bilateral or multilateral high-level consultative mechanisms with 18 countries including the United States and Australia and platforms for regional exchange. In recent years, a breakthrough has been made in mutual recognition of the academic education and degrees between China and some advanced countries. The opening up of education has played a crucial role in the whole structure of opening up and greatly affected the development of politics, economy, culture, and technology in China. The opening up of education stimulates and plays a boosting role to ensure the sustainable development of China’s opening up as a whole.