Recording Lightning in a Bottle

7

Edison the Inventor

Thomas Edison (1847–1931), what a guy! Little did any of us know that when he invented the telephone, record player, film camera, and projector, he’d start an entirely new industry. Sure, we’d had entertainment before—books and poems—but now with Edison’s inventions some very bright businessmen turned those live performances and books into recordings, film, movies, and, eventually, computer games. His inventions, when used as the tools of production, started the record and film entertainment industry. In essence, Edison created how most of us receive our entertainment products delivered over radio, TV, and Internet, and in live theater.

Let’s take a closer look at the full range of Edison’s inventions, as described by Gerlinda Grimes on the website Howstuffworks.com. As you read, think about the kind of creative and entrepreneurial mind that made all these “everyday” things, some now fading from our use, possible.

• The phonograph (1877)—Edison earned his nickname “The Wizard of Menlo Park” in November 1877 when he invented the world’s first method of recording and playing back sound.
• The carbon microphone (1877–78)—Alexander Graham Bell may have invented the telephone, but it was Edison who invented a microphone that turned the telephone from a promising gadget into an indispensable machine with real, practical applications.
• The incandescent light bulb (1879)—Without a doubt, the light bulb is Edison’s most famous invention. Scientists and inventors had been racing against each other for years, trying to invent artificial light. Edison cinched the win by creating an incandescent bulb with a carbon filament that could be practically reproduced.
• The Brockton breakthrough (1883)—Once the world had light, it needed a way to power that light. In the tiny town of Brockton, Massachusetts, Edison set out to construct one of the world’s first three-wire electrical power plants as a way to show the world that electric power was safer and more efficient than gas power.
• The kinetoscope, kinetograph, and kinetophone (1888–1890s)—Edison and his assistant William Dickson first invented the kinetoscope, a boxlike contraption that enabled a single viewer to watch a motion picture short through a peephole. Films were recorded with a motion picture camera called the kinetograph; later, the kinetophone attempted to add sound to moving pictures.
• Nickel-iron batteries (1901)—Before steam- and gasoline-powered engines were popularized, some of the world’s first automobiles were powered by batteries. Edison’s nickel-iron batteries were an improvement, in terms of both ecological impact and charging time, over the more commonly used lead-acid batteries of the day.¹

We often think of creative people as the artists, painters, and symphony conductors, but Edison was also a brilliantly creative inventor of devices. The scientific discoveries he and others made were developed into innovative tools that by and large still sustain the majority of entertainment products we enjoy. The creation of these new entertainment devices and techniques really started with fresh ways to use electricity, with some important discoveries coming initially from the Serbian (now Croatian) American innovator Nikola Tesla (1856–1943), whose idea of alternating electrical current, as opposed to Edison’s application of direct current, led to the foundation of wireless communication systems, the design of the modern generator, and other engineering-based inventions. Between Edison and Tesla, who came to America to work with Edison, the first light bulb, camera, projector, microphone, and sound recorder (a cylinder device) that led to the phonograph were all designed, tested, improved upon, and patented. Cool. Without any of that, we’d have a boring life, maybe even still candlelit, and we certainly would not have had the entertainment industry for so many decades and in the forms we do without these two scientists.

Edison the Entrepreneur

Edison was also an entrepreneur, having started the Edison General Electric Company in 1892, which specialized in communication inventions using his techniques for harnessing electricity for industrial and consumer uses. His company eventually became General Electric, one of the largest energy companies in the world, and he was smart enough to be the largest single shareholder. Edison’s role in the development of the entertainment industry cannot be overstressed since he started the first movie production company in 1893, called The Black Maria, which was the nickname of his kinetographic theater.² Through this company, he improved on late 19th-century European efforts to design a movie projection system, among other things, and his inventions also led to the development of sound recording, motion capture techniques, and projection used in early films, notably in the groundbreaking 1903 film The Great Train Robbery, which was filmed by a cameraman who had worked with Edison and knew his devices firsthand. Edison, as the inventor of the building-block machinery of the modern entertainment industry, may have accomplished much of his amazing work motivated by the sheer joy of creating something totally new in ways that would improve the quality of life, but he also was fully aware the inventions had great value as industrial products and that others would pay for them. That’s a wow! Yet, I wonder if he would have worked so hard if the law (at that time) did not protect his inventions, and if their acceptance by society couldn’t have provided a living for his family. Can you see the correlations between Edison’s inventions and property rights with the situation currently disrupting our entertainment industry’s creative writers, artists, and companies?

Edison worked in a different sort of marketplace, and while he designed the tools we require in the modern entertainment industry, he did not have to deal with how others would use them. His ideas for scientific applications would enrich society, but he confined himself to discovering new things and making sure they worked for those who wanted to use them for a variety of purposes and needs. Naturally, he could not fully anticipate the full impact of his creative discoveries as derivatives and enhancements of his groundbreaking works came into being over time.

Today, the questions that face the entertainment industry, the “Edison tool users,” if you will, are more about the law than the operation of the devices, but without the recording equipment Edison launched, we would not be having the discussion about copyrights, ownership, and distribution of products. Let’s take a look in this chapter at one of the processes in the production of entertainment, an actual recording session of a ten-song album. You may be surprised by how much we need to know to actually accomplish the master recording. It is, after all, a combination of oil and water, creativity and business, pleasure and frustration, emotions and money. By reverse engineering to analyze a simple recording process, we should be able to get a glimpse of what it would take to create a feature-length movie and with this, we can see how far we have come, how the entertainment landscape has changed, and how much we still owe to Edison and his entertainment inventions.

The Creative Business Milieu

In the entertainment business, there is an underlying philosophical conflict between the creative and business sides of the industry. Successful industry professionals accept these philosophical differences and work together to interface the creative with the business. Nonetheless, when large sums of money are involved, opinions, sometimes called ideologies, often emerge around the relative value of art or the arts and the profits realized by monetization of the arts as business. Disagreements range from friendly discussions to lawsuits, which sometimes define the boundaries of the conversations and potential solutions to the personal and financial conflicts artists and creators experience.

Where does the rubber meet the road in these sorts of principled conversations? Within the discussion of how to make recordings is one good example, as recording session artists need to get their product to the consumer. In their experiences, we will see a meeting of labor of love with real labor that costs and makes money for the parties in the entertainment production process.

Most artists want to control their own sound and performances, but at the same time, the labels want to control the costs. The solution is to bring in a third player, the producer, who has to bridge both the creative process and the financial aspects of creating an album. They’ve got to create great sellable tracks and hold the line on budgets. Therefore, during the recording of an album, the creative and financial control of the session and budget is the producer’s responsibility. Still, no matter what issues are involved, labels still fund and invest in recording artists and their creativity. Kennedy and Wenham overview the investment process in the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry’s Investing in Music:

In the film production business, the executive producers invest millions in the production and the director has to deliver the wow movie. It is not easy and a very different knowledge base is required to be successful. Egos are involved in both audio and visual productions. However, smart producers in the recording studio and directors in the film industry know who’s the boss. It’s usually the people supplying the money and the person who’s in charge of the quality of the production. And if it fails at the box office or at retail, then it’s the producer of the album or the director of the movie who takes the blame. Thus, understand that producers and directors make a lot of money when the product is successful, but they are the ones who also have to find a job when it fails. The recording artists and movie stars are usually exempt from the blame for a failure—unless they are in a long series of money-losing products. Then they are gone also! Not because they do not have talent, but because consumers don’t want to pay, use, watch, listen, or even steal their recordings and movies. That’s a slow death that is almost impossible to recover from by starting one’s career over. There are also many things that can go wrong, such as conflicts with the actors, lighting, audio, technical problems, location, weather, marketing, promotion, and the timing of publicity. It’s a real crapshoot, but when it’s right, when it’s a wrap, the last note has been sung, and everyone gets goose bumps … Well, then, everyone on the set (or in the session) knows that something very special has been created that might touch the human spirit or even last a lifetime. And each person who worked on it or created it was part of the dynamic team effort that made the magic happen. Inspiring? Exciting? You bet!

The Ingenious Creative Technicians

It’s the people behind the stars and public personalities who usually provide the essence for success in the creative and business systems. We hear and see only the finished products. But for every major star in the music industry and every major film star, there’s as many as 100 unseen songwriters, scriptwriters, musicians, actors, producers, directors, set builders, lighting and sound engineers, marketing and social media types, labels, or film production companies and their teams of promoters, sales, distributors, and others who help create, promote, and manage the act. Today’s wannabes have the computers and the ability to upload their self-made movies, videos, and music tracks to Internet providers, but what they rarely have is a wow song or story, the expert technicians required to create a competitive quality final master, and the money and business knowledge and skills to actually sell it. Are you starting to see where you might fit into the business?

The Pros

If we’re trying to compete with the major leagues, the wannabes need competitive products at the same quality before consumers will even notice it. Mom, Dad, and a few friends might watch it on YouTube or download it from iTunes, but that’s about it. It always starts with the wow. Next, the pros (experts at sound, lighting, recordings, filming, gaming, staging, etc.) have to come in to create high-quality entertainment products. British pop star Adele came to the attention of her label after one of her friends put up some of the singer’s songs on MySpace when Adele was just 16 years old. Two years later, in 2006, Adele was signed to her first contract. Most of us wannabes simply do not have the experience and tools to accomplish the task of professional quality recording at a competitive level, and the chances of the big break are just that—a chance that someone will hear and be interested in the sound or the song or both. Do we have the talent and brains to hit a major league pitcher’s 100-mile-per-hour fastball, throw a 60-yard touchdown pass, nail a three-pointer 30 feet out, or score a short-handed goal against the NHL’s Pekka Rinne? Of course not! But it’s really fun to take a shot at it!

The Brilliant Generation

This latest generation can often whip an older guy in a computer game blindfolded with one hand behind their backs. As an example, my two girls, Hannah and Chellie, at ten and eight years old, could always fix my computer problems. If I couldn’t figure out what was wrong they’d come over, give me the “Oh, Dad, that’s easy” bit, hit a few keys, and gleefully walk away while I would be asking, “How’d you do that?” In a recording session, if the producer asks for a deeper, thicker tone (whatever that means) on the grand piano or a longer sizzle on the high hat, how are you going to do that? Try condenser mic a quarter of an inch off the sound board on the “dead” spot (which is only about the size of a silver dollar). Every piano is different due to the type and grain in the wood, so every sound is nuanced by the recording technique associated with the peculiarities of the particular instrument. You probably didn’t know that trick, but my late friend Don Cary, who learned it from the guys at A&M Records, taught it to me. By the way, don’t even consider touching the EQ when recording basic tracks! Learned that from another acquaintance who owned the most successful rock studios in Los Angeles and San Francisco, Wally Heider (1923–1989). The biggest rock stars in the industry loved the guy for his knowledge and skills even when he dressed like a farmer and was old enough to be their grandfather.

When the film director asks the writer to change the “meet cute” to establish a more subtle conflict between love and hate for a split second, how’s it going to be done? A meet cute is the term used in the film industry that describes how two people (usually the starring couple) meet for the first time in an amusing or entertaining way. If the director wants the conflict to be nonverbal and asks the actress to show love in her eyes and hate on her face, how is she going to do that? How will the lighting and camera angles be changed to get the shot? How will the actress also give a hint of the future love/hate emotion that sets up the rest of the script? Well, you have to know or quickly improvise because they wanted it done yesterday and they’re about to go over budget. These examples are a small snapshot of the genius and creative personalities who live behind the scenes or glass that make the artist or star look and sound great. And it shows us the who of the creative process, and, as you see, it takes a team to make a product and to shape an environment where success is possible.

Teams

As a part of a team of experts working together to create the entertainment products you’ll need to be quick-witted, possess a great personality, and be consistently easy to work with to support the other team members. The computer whizzes may need to work with the math expert software writers to develop just the right tension between winning and losing the game. Can’t have it too easy or too hard. How will the videogamer’s choices be converted into skill levels that will provide just the right emotional response between winning and losing the game to encourage the player to continue? In a film production, how is the writer’s vision turned into the conflicts of the storyline? How do you light the set, dub in the sound effects, select the perfect type of makeup that will not reflect the red light from the gels—and the list goes on! In the recording sessions, the musicians, background singers, audio engineer, and producer must work together to create magic; or, as Quincy Jones used to call it, the “lightning in a bottle” that emotionally supports the royalty artists. Of course, once the products have been created there are other teams of executives and experts who finance the productions, budget the expenses, manage the acts, publicize the people and the events, and market the music, images, and merchandise to consumers.

Lots of Hats

The perception recording artists and stars often have is they simply have to sing, play their instrument, act, and provide shameless self-promotion. But the smart ones also become entrepreneurs, business owners, and sometime even employers. As I have been in sessions with some of the most successful record producers, engineers, musicians, and artists in the world, I can tell you it is a significant head adjustment. The studio musicians have to have a connection with producers because that’s who hires them, just as personal managers hire the on-the-road-musicians to back up the famous recording artists on the tour. Thus, the musicians and backup singers who cut the tracks in the studios are not usually the ones on the tour with the famous dudes.

There is a very strict “respect for authority” in the studios. Who you talk to and when are important to know. Usually it’s very wise to keep you ears open and your mouth shut until asked a question or given an opportunity to introduce yourself. The talented technicians, who are the film camera people, lighting techs, and stage managers, all have their bosses, and in reality, the producer in the recording studio tells the lead musician, who tells the drummer and bass player what they need in their performance. The director in visual productions usually tells the techs running the switcher which camera to “take” for the live feed or the lighting director what to have the techs guys fix when the egotistical star has a slight shadow on the forehead. It has to be perfect! Even the stars (including the men) need to know what type of makeup to use for different types of lighting, camera shots, and angles. And that covers just the basics for getting started! The more you know, the more you can help, and the quicker you’ll find employment by respecting the professional roles each member of the team plays.

Attitudes are really interesting. It’s amazing to hear the superstar call the producer “sir” or “ma’am” or by their first name in a humble manner, respectful of their position as boss and insightful creative coach or teacher. It’s also a blast when I’ve heard them say in a very direct manner to an act that’s being a jerk to “just shut up and sing.” That usually happens only once, and it’s not the superstar who keeps the job if he or she continues to disregard the authority of the producer. Same thing in the film industry with the director, only even more so, as there are only a few really great directors. The ones who have the talent to make an actor give the performance of their lifetime are rare. The really smart stars know their position at that moment and always show respectfully how lucky they are to be cast in the role or to be working with the producer, director, and crew. It’s much different from what you’d think listening to gossip, publicity agents, and TV hosts gushing over an act. But that’s the reality of the business, and everyone knows how to play his or her role and to work together to make it happen! Everyone knows that the final recording, movie, or whatever product will be good or bad based on each person’s passion, knowledge, personality, and communication skills as part of the team, contributing to anything that needs to be done.

Oil and Water

In the business, there is always a strange balance between the creative and business-minded men and women who own, operate, or work at industry-related companies. It’s this crazy balance that determines the nature of the entertainment companies and industry’s products and overall success. Realistically, industry success involves passion, a unique world vision of humanity and society, street and learned knowledge, talent, an understanding of business principles, connections, money, and an excellent team of experts who are constantly searching for profits, which are becoming increasing harder to assure now that most of the music in the world, for instance, is acquired without payment. The product’s potential for success is based first on a great book, story, or song and then the artist’s ability to contribute through his or her talent in some meaningful manner to a message of emotional importance to various segments of the consumer market.

Professional musicians, artists, producers, cameramen/women, and other industry insiders assertively earned their own success by having a positive attitude, meeting the right people, perfecting their artistic and business intellectual talents, obtaining a quality education, and being in the right place at the right time. Successful industry-related entrepreneurs provide products and start-up businesses that solve problems, create win-win situations, and provide better entertainment products to the world’s population.

Luck is important, but personal goals, developing your creative and analytical talents, a positive attitude, finding your niche, and educating yourself to convert your passions into a career are important. If a major producer in the music industry or a film director asks you, “What do you want to do?” the answer “I don’t know” isn’t helpful. Entrepreneurship is becoming one of the main keys to success in the entertainment business. Industry professionals customarily associate with other colleagues for commonality and friendships, and to enhance career opportunities. Nobody can make it in this business by him- or herself. It’s too big of an industry. Work in teams! There are many opportunities to be found by working in teams with others who have similar interests, goals, and connections. Let’s look at some important teams in the industry more closely to see how they collaborate to bring quality products to consumers.

The Recording Team

Recording artists are idolized as superstars, but it is the creative team of talented studio musicians, backup singers, audio engineers, and record producers that makes the recordings that lead to the artist’s fame. Having the ability to sing well is one thing; getting it recorded with magic is quite another. Major artists usually need to reach iconic status before consumers buy (or steal) the recordings that pay for the distribution, promotion, and publicity required to launch careers, especially long-term careers that have a specific brand that brings consumers back year after year.

Producers

The session producer is the captain of the ship, directing and stimulating the creative elements of the audio engineer, studio musicians, and recording artists. Industry-proven skills and knowledge include a passion for music, an understanding of music theory and sight-reading, and in some places knowledge of the “number system.” Producers also need to know copyright laws, music publishing, business finance, and the music business subsystems. Musicianship skills are essential for music producers. Successful producers communicate well with others, are decisive leaders, understand basic accounting skills for controlling budgets, and have strategic management skills for administration. In addition, producers commonly have a consummate understanding of recording studio acoustics, basic electronics, equipment capabilities, and an almost magical ability to “marry” the right song to the right recording artist.

Producers know other industry professionals through networking, showcases, parties, meetings, professional organizations, industry events, award shows, and so forth, and successful producers know who the industry movers and shakers are (the insiders and personalities who manage and control the industry), as the majority of their work originates from those connections. Ever heard of Ray Charles, Wilson Pickett, Led Zeppelin, Bob Dylan, Carlos Santana, Dire Straits, or Aretha Franklin? Jerry Wexler (1917–2008), who started his career in the music business as a journalist (with a degree from Kansas State University) for Billboard in the 1940s, became the guy behind the scenes who launched their careers.⁴ He helped black entertainers break into the business when others wouldn’t. As Bruce Weber (2008) described Wexler at the time of his death,

He was a living contradiction who used societal challenge and personal tensions to create pure magic.

Independent producers typically begin their careers learning the trade by producing demo sessions for publishers and custom or vanity albums that are commonly nonlabel productions paid for by the recording artist or band. Some are demo recordings that showcase the recording artists or songs, which are then “pitched” to a record label. Great demo recordings often lead to the next step in the career of a producer: working for a label in the A&R department, recording development deals.

Record label staff producers are hired by labels to produce development deals for acts. The label pays for all expenses, including the studio, musicians, and vocalists. The producer gains additional opportunities to work with better musicians, artists, and studio equipment. If the tracks are perceived as sellable, exciting, or quality, labels may sign the act and release a single. If a label passes on the act, the cost of the development deal is commonly used as a tax write-off.

Major independent producers are at the top of their profession and are paid handsomely. Extremely successful producers earn $1,000–$6,000 per side act they are producing. In addition, they receive producer points (usually 1%–3%) of the artist’s royalties on each unit sold. Major producers are highly respected for their abilities to produce hit records. Their success makes them behind-the-scenes stars within their own industry. Because major producers gain so much power and respect in the industry, they control their destiny as clever entrepreneurs by letting labels and artists bid for their services. Major labels often hire very successful producers as executives to run a label and use and protect their talents instead of competing with them. Makes sense, doesn’t it?

Musicians

Musicians change our world; life would not be the same without them. All musicians are artists, as it doesn’t matter where they play or how much money they make. Although the recording artists usually get the fame, it is the musicians who create the tracks and “feel” in the studio who are the real heroes. Without them, singers are poets—so who are these people who might make someone a lucky star?

Garage/jam band musicians are usually the high school students who jam to learn cover tunes of popular acts. This often becomes their first step toward a professional career in the industry. Most musicians volunteer to perform in small clubs, coffeehouses, churches, and other types of local gigs to learn the business and improve their performance skills. Many continue to improve their performance skills and knowledge during college by jamming with others who share their interests and taking private lessons from classically trained musicians. Others simply learn how to make recordings on their computers using GarageBand, Pro Tools, and Logic Pro software programs.

Working musicians receive money for their music performances. Serious musicians join unions and audition to become members of various levels of performance groups, including orchestras, bands, and other types of entertainment ensembles. Many use their musical skills to supplement other types of occupations. Others continue to struggle either part-time or full-time to develop a “sound” and a “following” that may lead to greater financial opportunities through their creative musical performances.

Road musicians and event artists are the musicians and vocalists who are on tour as an opening act or as the musicians hired to perform with a recording artist. Others are often classically trained musicians who form smaller groups to perform at special social, political, or other types of events. It is very rare for the road musicians of a major recording artist to be on the actual hit recordings they are playing live. That is the job of studio musicians. Road musicians’ salaries are related to the stature of the act they’re backing. Major star, more bucks. They can make $1,000 per show, plus per diems that cover hotel, food, and travel. Known acts or over-the-hill artists generate rates closer to a few hundred dollars per show. What road musicians have to consider is what the cost of going on the road will be relative to how much other work—that is, studio or solo work—might be missed and how to establish a pay rate that reflects what their talent and time are worth to the act. They have to put on their entrepreneurship hat to make the deal and not be swayed by the potential excitement of going on the road with the act. Basic union (AFM) scale is $200 a day plus $20.00 for the pension fund. Rates vary depending on the “local” you’re a member of. As an example, in Nashville, the road scale is $200 plus the $20 pension for a total of $220. In Los Angeles it is not listed, and thus it varies depending on the local the musician is a member of. However, the union has a lengthy pack of bylaws, which sets rates and scales on all types of performances in various types of live and recorded media.

Studio musicians are most often heard on major recording artists’ recordings, yet very few consumers know them by name. Great studio musicians may make hundreds of dollars in a three-hour recording session and more than a couple thousand a day, charging double or triple. They often become true stars known only by the best producers and recording artists. They are recording artists themselves, but are rarely known by the public. Studio musicians play their instruments to highlight the marriage of the song to the vocal characteristics of the recording artist; plus they somehow emotionally play the instrument in a unique expression, reflecting their emotions, personalities, and life experiences. Some of the best musicians in the world are studio session musicians, so of course, most record labels and recording artists use master session studio musicians for their album projects. Recording opportunities include music soundtracks for TV shows, movies, commercials, jingles, and major artists’ recordings. Possessing musical talent is imperative if you want to be a recording artist or studio musician. In addition, a music education and an understanding of copyright law, music publishing, networking, and the music business are important for success. As should be clear by now, there are times and places to go “solo”; at other times, you have to be part of a team, and when it comes to the business of entertainment, you must also be affiliated with professional groups who work to protect your interests as an artist and an industry professional.

Musicians Union—The American Federation of Musicians

The American Federation of Musicians represents about 90,000 musicians in the United States and Canada for recordings and live performances in negotiated agreements for studio and other recordings, TV, films, jingles, concerts, stage shows, symphony, opera, and ballet. Major record labels are signatories to the American Federation of Musicians’ Sound Recording Labor Agreement (formerly the Phonograph Record Label Agreement), which governs the wages, benefits, and working conditions of all its members, including studio musicians. According to information posted on their homepage, www.afm.org,

Membership advantages include a retirement fund, health insurance, and AFL-CIO benefits. The AFM uses franchised booking agents, who usually work for 10% commission to connect union musicians with people who want to hire them. Most of the agents represent musicians and recording artists locally and nationally. If you are a musician playing gigs and do not want to get stiffed (play the gig and not get paid), representation by an AFM licensed agent will usually prevent that type of problem.

Audio Engineers

Audio engineers mix the creativity of music and the artistic capabilities of the artists, musicians, and background vocalists to the logical, physical, and technological potential of the studio’s acoustics and equipment to capture (record) the best performances. Suggested skills and knowledge include a basic understanding of the business of music and entertainment, music theory, copyright laws, music publishing, marketing, management, and business finance. Knowledge of computer software programs Pro Tools, Logic Pro, and even GarageBand is important as the industry moves toward less expensive modes of recording to save money and improve the profit and loss statement. Basic electronic, acoustics, and recording equipment varies by studio, and having a continuous desire to learn the latest technical advances in recording equipment and audio production is fundamental. Communication skills and the ability to work with highly creative individuals are crucial. Business courses are also helpful, as most audio engineers often become producers, and both are entrepreneurs. They also need to be able to have fun, experiment, be a little crazy, bend the rules, and do whatever it takes to get the best creative performance possible out of the artists. In their book Come Together: The Business Wisdom of the Beatles, Courtney and Cassidy state,

Most lease a recording studio, computer, and software, and hire a music publishing company, and some own their own independent record labels. The careers of the most successful audio engineers start with basic lessons in recording or on their own computer, recording themselves and others. Careers often follow a similar trajectory from entry level, perhaps in an internship in a music business or business program that leads in time to becoming the head engineer or an entrepreneurial opportunity to own your own studio. The typical job title, experiential path, and requisite skills are these:

• Entry-level audio engineers are often college students who are working in a studio as an intern. At the same time, they are recording local musicians on the latest computer recording software. They are rarely paid for their efforts; however, they are given opportunities to learn the basics and to meet members of the creative team.
• Second engineers are a step up in the process from entry-level engineers. They set up microphones, cables, headsets, the console, and alignment of the tape machines. Second engineers also run the tape machines, keep the log sheets during the sessions, and occasionally travel with artists on the road to hone audio and mixing skills.
• Staff engineers are sometimes employed at a recording studio depending on the type of the work in which the studio specializes. They accomplish any level of session, from demo to master, with major recording artists and triple-scale musicians. Staff engineer positions are commonly found in nonmusic recording centers, where great engineers are difficult to find. Annual salaries range from $50,000+ to huge sums for engineers with great track records.
• Major-artist/independent engineers are at the top of their profession, with a long list of hit records they helped create. They are “on-call” for and most often work on master sessions for label artists and known superstars. Their pay is negotiable, ranging between $1,000 a day, plus expenses, to huge per-side (whatever they want) salaries based on their track record. It is very rare for audio engineers to also receive points from the artist’s points; however, in very special situations, it has happened. Most studios located in major music recording centers (Los Angeles, New York, and Nashville) have replaced staff audio engineers with independent engineers. The location for the production has become less important as many artists have studios in their homes or vacation homes, and many use computers and software to record all their tracks instead of renting a major studio.

Recording Artists (Royalty Artists)

Royalty artists are usually signed by record labels in work-for-hire deals for the specific purpose of creating recordings. The artists are paid a percentage (a royalty) of the profits from the sales of the product. The royalties are called points and a point is a percentage of the suggested retail list price. I know this sounds a little crazy, but the points are the percentage of your income as determined in your deal. Everybody wants a piece of the royalty artist’s royalties, so the artist needs to be careful in signing the initial deal as the producer may want a percentage or points. The amount will not come out of the label’s profits; rather, it will come out of the royalty artist’s points. If you have an artist manager, they may want a percentage of how much you are being paid, and the same with an audio engineer, to whom you should never pay a percentage. Royalty artists usually sign work-for-hire deals for specific recordings. However, in 360 deals, the artist is also responsible for other revenue-generating work, such as concert tours, promotions, and endorsements. The label retains the copyright of the artist’s musical and vocal performances and, thus, the artist gives up ownership (the copyright) of his or her performances.

Record deals are just weird when compared to a typical bank loan, where you have to prove you can repay the debt or put up something of value to guarantee it. On the front end of a recording deal, the label acts as a bank, providing financial security to pay for the artist’s recordings, tours, and advances. However, the artist never owes the label any money! It is the label that has to pay off the loan (to itself) by applying the artist’s royalties from each unit sold (in the old days before peer-to-peer [P2P]), and, now, a combination of royalties and percentages of total net income from corporate sponsorships, merchandise, and touring. Therefore, it is the label that signs the artist, finances the recordings, and markets and sells the act’s products and shows to recoup expenses and split profits. What does it cost the artist? It depends on the deal, percentages, and support by all label employees to enhance and aggressively sell the act through their image and branding. How well does it work? That depends on how excited the fans get and how much money they throw at the act’s products and shows. And nobody knows what that might be until it actually happens. Welcome to the emotion business! Spend millions to create, promote, market, and sell the act and their products and within a week or two, everyone knows if they’ll hit or not. Welcome to the odds and the financial risks.

Virtuosos are celebrated as the best in the world based on their musical and vocal talents and fame. Examples of virtuosos are opera singer Luciano Pavarotti (1935–2007), violin virtuoso Itzhak Perlman (b. 1945), and the classically trained singer Andrea Bocelli (b. 1958). All these artists have been highly sought after to make recordings, both in live performances and through studio recordings that sell to niche markets around the world.

BGVs (background vocalists) provide the harmony in recording sessions and live performances. It is amazing how often background vocalists are used to blend their voices with the main star to improve or “carry” the superstar act.

Professional singers are found everywhere: on recordings, in choirs, advertisements, jingles, and movie soundtracks; you name it—they are there. Professional singers (vocalists) frequently net more money than label artists, as they do not have to support an entourage of road musicians, managers, producers, and label marketing and promotion executives.

Demo singers find entry-level work at publishing companies, singing demo recordings. Nonunion members and college interns may earn $10–$50 a song, which is not much money, but singing in a recording studio is different from performing in a choir or on stage. Demo sessions provide the novice studio singer with some valuable studio experience. The acoustics, lighting, and monitoring are often quite complex. So, the more experience gained in the studio, the quicker an artist may become a professional recording artist. There is also another advantage, as producers, A&R, and artist managers often listen to the demo tapes, hoping to find a great song. Sometimes, they also find a great voice! Therefore, singing on demos is a great way to gain studio experience and be heard by many industry insiders who are seeking the “next big thing.”

Singers Union—The Screen Actors Guild/American Federation of Television and Radio Artists

As we saw earlier, it is useful to be part of a larger entertainment professional organization that will enable you to follow major changes in the industry and connect you to others within your field. The Screen Actors Guild merged with the American Federation of Television and Radio Artists on March 30, 2012, when more than 80% of both unions membership voted in favor of the merger.⁸ According to the SAG-AFTRA website,

The American Federation of Television and Radio Artists has represented recording artists in studio sessions, television productions, and live performances since the late 1930s.¹⁰ It also represented actors, announcers, sound effects artists, and other personalities working in radio and television. Representation was focused in six areas: sound recordings, broadcast news, commercials, industries, and new technologies (non-broadcast industry films) and entertainment programs (television).¹¹ About 600 companies (including all the major labels and music companies) signed The Code of Fair Practice for Phonograph Records.¹² Accordingly, SAG-AFTRA webpage states,

As such, SAG-AFTRA works to protect all aspects of the entertainment industry, both seen and unseen by the public. One of the major environments for such a group is found in the studios, which are key to all entertainment production.

Studios

To make money, labels and music companies invest money into their signed artists and hire a recording team to create a sellable recording. But they’ve also got to find a place to do the work, a recording studio for music, a film production studio and set for a movie, and a live stage for theater. Traditional studios tend to be earmarked by their acoustics (sound), equipment, cost, and reputation for making hits. In the past, these studios were an integral part of the music business: the place where dreams were made and sometimes broken. In general, traditional studios fall into six categories:

• Master studios—most master studios are solidly packed with the latest acoustic audio equipment and special effects toys producers use to create great tracks.
• Project/mini studios—these are mainly for a low-budget, limited pressing master tape, or a movie soundtrack; as such project studios cover the gap between the very expensive master studios and the basic demo studios. They are often filled with dated equipment and minor acoustics.
• Postproduction studios—after overdubbing sessions, producers and artists often move to the special equipment in the postproduction studio to mix the master tapes to computer flash drives.
• Demo studios—these studios are often the older analog studios with minor special effects equipment. They are used for demos as well as vanity and limited budget recordings.
• Garage/basement studios—these are the bottom-line basic studios often found in homes of young musicians and producers.
• Dorm rooms and bedrooms—it’s hard to believe that you can use a dorm room or bedroom as a “studio,” but with Logic Pro, Pro Tools, and other computer software programs, the need for the acoustic and equipment of a major studio are diminished.

Acoustics

Most music companies still use traditional studios on some or all of their artists’ albums, probably because the talents of the recording artists, musicians, audio engineer, and producers combined are still only as good as the studio’s equipment and acoustics. Poor acoustics can destroy even the best creative efforts of world-class artists. Floating walls, ceilings, and floors are used to isolated sound from room to room in performance studios and control rooms. Grooves are cut into the floors, walls are mounted on rubber tubes, and ceilings are often spring-loaded. Windows between the performance rooms and control room are often made of two thick double- or triple-pane pieces of glass separated by several inches of air space. Soundproof doors complete the package. Studios are usually divided into the following:

• Performance rooms are where the royalty artists and musicians perform.
• The control room is where the producer and audio engineers supervise and control the quality and amount of the recorded signal.
• The equipment room isolates the noise and heat generated by tape recorders, amps, computers, room equalizers, and most of the other electrical equipment needed in the traditional recording process.
• The storage area is where microphones, music stands, headsets, cords, direct boxes, and other recording gear are stored.

Aesthetics

While musicians and vocalists create the music in the performance studio, the audio engineer and producer enhance the quality of the sound in the control room. They may use tone controls (equalizers) on the console to improve the quality of the signal. Just as colors of paint help create emotions in a piece of art, engineers use acoustics, microphones, and consoles to emphasize and match the “feel” of the song to the image and vocal characteristics of the recording artist.

Microphones

Sir Charles Wheatstone (1802–1875) first used the term “microphone” in 1827, but it wasn’t actually invented until 1876 by Emile Berline (1851–1929) and used as a telephone voice transmitter at the U.S. Centennial Exposition.¹⁴ Mics convert sound waves into electronic signals. They all sound different, have different axes for picking up sounds, and vary in sound quality. Thus, it is extremely important that engineers know which ones to select, where to place them in the performance room, and what constitutes the correct proximity between the talent and the instruments. Proper selection and usage are often the difference between a “great” sounding session and something less. Basic differences, as controlled by the microphones, include the following:

• Dynamic mics have a coil or wire in the element (top) of the mic. Sound waves vibrate a plastic diaphragm connected to a coil of wire, moving the coil in and out of a permanent magnetic field. Electricity is created anytime you pass a wire through a magnetic force field. Thus, the movement converts the sound waves (acoustic waves) into an electronic signal.
• Ribbon mics operate on the same principle as dynamic microphones, except they have flexible, metallic ribbons (or foils) on which sound waves vibrate in and out of the permanent magnetic force field. Because the ribbon is flexible, the quality of the sound generated is often considered smoother and warmer.
• Condenser mics have two plates that hold a static electronic charge. One is a permanent plate and the other is moveable. Sound waves move the moveable plate, changing the distance between the two plates, which generates an electrical output. Condenser microphones need batteries or a phantom power source supplied through the microphone cable.

Pickup Patterns

Microphones have different pickup patterns or areas where they are most sensitive to sound. The patterns are used to acoustically isolate one instrument or vocal, excluding the leakage of sounds from other instruments or vocals into the microphone. Engineers also use pickup patterns to induce an acoustic mixture of “live” sound (omnidirectional) from a very isolated single sound source. Consumers often feel the quality of the mixture of the sound as an emotion when they hear the recording, but are largely unaware of the technical skills and training required to produce the sound that appeals to their emotions. Here are examples of sound pickup patterns:

• Omnidirectional pickup patterns allow sound waves to enter from all directions into the mic at approximately the same loudness level (measured in dBs).
• Cardioid pickup patterns cancel the sound coming from the sides and rear of the mic. Most engineers use mics with cardioid patterns to limit and avoid leakage problems that usually occur when using omnidirectional mics.
• Bidirectional pickup patterns receive sound waves from the front and back of the mic and cancel out sound waves coming from the sides of the mic.

Consoles

Consoles often appear to be straight from the bridge of the starship Enterprise. Consoles act as traffic cops, dividing and directing the microphone signals and connecting instruments to various destinations, all at about 186,000 miles per second. Each plugged-in microphone is one signal controlled through one module in the console.

Recorders/Software

Analog tape machines record a magnetic copy of both the amplitude (loudness) and frequency (number of vibrations per second) sent through the console to the tape recorder. The advantages of analog tape recordings are a “warmer sound” at a lower price. However, distortion of the signal and unwanted noises like tape hiss may occur with analog tapes. Digital machines, on the other hand, convert the microphone electronic signals into binary codes of zeros and ones (pulse or no pulse). They use recording tape only to store the binary code. When the codes are played back, the computer inside the tape machine converts the binary code into the music previously recorded. The advantages of digital recording include the lack of noise and distortion that are usually found in analog recordings. However, digital machines cost much more than analog machines (although great analog machines are becoming a rare commodity). Nowadays, computer software programs, such as Pro Tools, Logic Pro, and even GarageBand, are replacing analog and even older digital machines. These software programs sound great and cost very little compared to an actual physical studio (GarageBand is often free when you buy a Mac computer).

Speakers

In the control room, the electronic signals (from the microphones to the console) are converted back into acoustic sound waves by monitors (speakers). To make sure they are providing a correct sound (flat frequency response), room equalizers are used to compensate for the “hype of the sound” created by the speakers and control room acoustics. As an example, control rooms are shot with “pink noise,” which measures the frequency response to determine how to use the room equalizers to compensate for the acoustical problems.¹⁵ The electronic signals coming into the console from the microphones, tape machines, effects, and computer software programs are amplified and divided into different frequencies (bass, midrange, and treble) by a crossover network (often in the speakers) and then sent to the corresponding bass, midrange, and treble speakers. Large speaker cones vibrate slowly and move a significant amount of air to reproduce bass frequencies. Smaller cones vibrating faster generate higher tones (frequencies). Tweeters reproduce the highest frequencies, adding clarity to the quality of the music or sounds you’re hearing. The bass or lower frequencies have longer and more powerful wavelengths, while the highest tones are shorter and much more directional. Thus, room acoustics need to be correct in order for the audio engineer and producer to hear the signal correctly as they mix the tracks.

Effects

Effects equipment called “outboard gear” are devices used to improve, change, or fake the quality of the signal and overall “feel” consumers might perceive from listening to the signal (recordings). Of course, most of these “effects” are now generated within software programs. It is important for you to familiarize yourself with these tools as they help create the “desirability” of the product for the consumer. Among the commonly used tools and techniques to generate effects we find the following:

• Compressions that are used to reduce the amplitude (loudness) of a signal to record a proper signal on analog tape. Compression is also used to change the quality of the sound of instruments and vocalists. Settings include compression ratios and attack and release times used to fatten or tighten the quality of sound (the sound of a kick drum or bass guitar perhaps).
• Echo is used to make the singer or instruments sound as if they were in a different size room than the actual recording studio. Long reflections of 50 milliseconds or greater are perceived as a repetition of a direct sound wave. Think about singing in the shower: the “echo” sound created makes everybody a singer … except me!
• Gates are switches (set on a threshold) used to stop signals based on amplitude (loudness). Gates are used to block noise (other instruments) from leaking into microphones during the actual session. They are often used on drums and overdub vocals to “tighten” the quality of the sound.
• Harmonizers offer hope even for me when it comes to singing! Along with changing or correcting the pitch, they can electronically double (with a slight delay) one vocalist or instrument to make it sound as if there were two. The delay settings can be varied between echo and reverberation, which differ in time settings.
• Limiters compress the dynamic range of a signal to its maximum compression. The amplitude is “limited” to the maximum settings, which tend to make the signal sound “thinner.”
• Slap is a delayed sound perceived as a distinct echo, usually set for a delay of 35–250 milliseconds. Think of the early “rockabilly” recordings of Elvis (1935–1977), Carl Perkins (1932–1998), and Johnny Cash (1932–2003), and you’ll know how producers used it in the 1950s. It used to be created by recording a new vocal out of sync with some previously recorded vocals (the delay caused by the physical distance between the tracks coming off the playback heads and the new track being recorded on the record head).
• Reverberations are a delay of ten milliseconds or more after a direct sound wave. Engineers use it to make the vocalists or musicians sound as if they are in a large auditorium instead of a small, acoustically controlled recording studio.

Studio Schedules

In major recording cities like New York, Los Angeles, Nashville, Memphis, Miami, or Seattle, sessions are “booked” in three-hour blocks scheduled from 10 a.m. to 1 p.m., 2 to 5 p.m., 6 to 9 p.m., and 10 p.m. to 1 a.m. This allows producers, musicians, and vocalists to move from project to project during the day by going from one session to another as all the studios are working on the same hourly schedule. The hour between sessions is for tearing down the current session and setting up the next session.

The Recording Process

It’s time to create the magic in the studio that allows consumers to feel goose bumps. Producers are in charge of the recording processes, budget, and material—the songs the artist sings. They use their years of experience, musical knowledge, and opinions about “what” the public wants to hear to produce acts. In addition, producers often have a personal communicative talent that helps them encourage a maximum creative performance out of the singers and musicians individually and at the same time, together, to create the magic or goose bumps we get when we hear the final recording. Not an easy thing to do! Producers have to select the perfect song for the perfect artist and somehow encourage all the musicians and singers to create a final master recording that is superior to the original demo. Creative people can be weird and are often very difficult to work with, so the producer also has to maintain control of the session or it may turn into something resembling a circus, costing the label thousands of dollars per hour. According to record producer Jimmy Bowen,

Preproduction

Bowen claims there are five basic steps in preproduction for recording an act: (a) finding the artist, (b) researching the artist, (c) finding the material (songs), (d) hiring the musicians, and (e) setting up the session.

Marrying the right song to the right artist is essential. The two must fit together in a way that allows the melody and lyrics to reinforce the perceptions consumers have of the artist’s image. Bowen continues:

Producers are required to find and select the right songs for the artist to record. According to Bowen,

The quality of the studio musicians, the recording artist’s performances, the production, and the engineering all contribute to the final sound and feel of the recording. Bowen claims that

Basic Tracks

Are you ready to lay down your first track in the studio? Do you have your artistic and technical team in place? Let’s get to it! It is going to take a lot of time and effort, so will it be worth it in the end? That is up to you!

The first stage of a recording session in the studio is called basic tracks or tracking. The rhythm instruments and scratch (rough or practice) vocals lay the foundation for the rest of the instruments and vocals, which are cut later in their final versions. Session instruments can include drums, bass guitar, piano, and electric and acoustic guitars. The recording artist adds a reference or scratch vocal for the musicians to listen to while they play. It is resung and rerecorded later as a finished vocal. The session process involves the musicians and vocalists listening to the demo recording of the song, tuning up, and practicing the song at least a few times to prepare for the recording. Many of the studio musicians in the music centers of Los Angeles, New York, and Nashville learn, adapt, and contribute their musical creative talents to the essence of the song in just a few minutes. Basic tracks are recorded once the musicians and vocalists are ready, the audio engineer has set the microphones, monitors, headphones, and equalization and effects levels, and the producer is satisfied with the quality of the sound and musical performance during practice.

Recording the right amount of signal on the tape is difficult. Too much signal will distort the tape. Too little signal will cause the playback to be noisy. Digital tape recorders and computer programs record a greater dynamic range, which solves some of the engineer’s distortion and noise problems. If most of the musicians play poorly, the recording process is repeated. When the producer approves the basic musical tracks, the minor musical problems are usually fixed later. Logs are completed, which are written notes about the songs being recorded. Notes include length of the song, problems that need to be corrected in the overdub stage, and equalization and effects settings. Logs are stored in the box with the master tape. They are used in later recording sessions to alert the engineer and producers of necessary issues. Once the song has been recorded, everyone listens during tape playback for mistakes and opportunities to improve their performances. If recorded properly, the “take” becomes a “master.”

Signal flow in basic tracks from the mics in the studio into the console is split and sent to the 24-track tape machine or hard disk drive (computer); the monitors in the control room (speakers); the musicians’ headsets (earphones); the effects (add echo, reverb, pitch control to signals); and the two-track master tape machine or computer. Playback (to listen to the recording) reverses the signal flow from the tape machines or computer hard disk drive and allows the producer, audio engineer, musicians, and vocalists a chance to check their creative work.

Overdubbing

Adding instrumental parts and vocals to the previously recorded master tape is called overdubbing. The prior tracks are saved and the tape machine is placed into sel-sync (short for selective synchronization). Invented by guitarist Les Paul (1915–2009) in the late 1940s, sel-sync turns the record heads on the previously recorded tracks into playback heads. This allows the new instruments and vocals to be recorded in time with the instruments and vocals that were first recorded.

Signal flow in overdubbing is a combination of basic tracks and playback. The signal is played off the record head in playback and sent to the console, where it is split and sent to the monitors, effects, two-track/DAT, and through the cue system to the musicians’ and recording artists’ headsets (the signal is converted from an analog or binary magnet signal into an electronic signal by the playback heads and then sent to the console). Once the musicians and singers hear the signal (their previously recorded tracks), they play or sing their new tracks. The originals recorded in basic tracks are saved and the new tracks are added in sync with the previous tracks (microphones convert the artist’s music into electrical signals, which travel back to the console to be split and sent to the monitors, effects, and two-track/DAT and are recorded as new tracks on the 24- or 32-track tape machine). “In sync” means that the record heads (on tape machines) are turned into playback heads, so that all tracks are played back, and the new tracks are recorded at the same time. Thus, the overdub stage is a combination of playback and recording at the same time.

Mixdown

The last stage in the recording process is mixdown. After all the instruments and vocals have been recorded and overdubbed, the 24, 32, or whatever number tracks are mixed down to 2 tracks (stereo): left and right. Producers and audio engineers mix the tracks according to the “style” of the music genre (rock, hip-hop, blues, jazz), create stereo images (using pan pots, which are switches and faders on the console that move the signal from left to right or anywhere in between), and create 3-D depth (by acoustic positioning and pre-echo signals correlated to a dry signal). Of course, the mixdown process is highly creative, and often depends on the perspective of the producers. Some labels use different producers to mix the same track, and then select the one they want to release. Album cuts and dance mixes are sometimes different from the version of the song released to radio. Producers may even change the amount of compression on vocals and instruments for an AM radio release compared to an FM or digital release, as AM radio is primarily midrange, missing much of the bass and higher treble. Digital radio solves these problems because the signal is a binary code, and the music is generated by the computer chip in the receiver. The mixdown process is shown in Figure 7.3.

“Signal flow” is the converting of the magnetic signal stored on the tape of the analog or digital tape machine or hard drive into an electrical signal. It is sent (op amps) to the console, where the producers and audio engineers may redirect it to effects equipment (reverb, echo, pitch, slap) and will finish by equalizing the signal (e.g., changing the frequency response, bass, treble), panning (stereo positioning), editing, and mixing.

Mastering

If the recording team of musicians, recording artists, audio engineers, and producers has done its job, the creativity of the recording session has been “captured” on tape or computers. The final mix, stored as an email attachment, two-track analog or digital tape (DAT), or on a flash drive, is sent to the mastering lab to be processed, and then pressed into CDs or released for digital downloads. The Moving Picture Experts Group developed compression systems to move digital video (movies and video) and digital audio data (the audio for the movies and video) quickly by reducing (compressing) the amount of digital information. The music industry adopted this format to digitally download recorded songs as MP3s.

Computer Programs

To the detriment of the recording studio business, many artists now forgo the cost of major recording studio sessions in favor of computer-based software. Great tracks are great tracks, and most consumers do not care if they were created in traditional studio sessions, costing hundreds of thousands of dollars, or in a dorm room for a couple of pizzas. Years ago, the only way to record great artists and end up with goose bump–inducing tracks was in recording studios. Not today, as computers and software technology have provided almost anyone with the tools they need to create great tracks without the previously required studio sessions. Some major artists are recording only basic tracks in studios, reserving the overdub and mixing stages to be edited with computer programs at their leisure. They can even email their vocal recording to producers, who remix the final tracks.

Technology has caused financial problems for many studios, musicians, and recording artists. However, it has also launched many creative opportunities for artists who, before this technology, could not afford the major studios, musicians, and singers. Software has leveled the playing field, and almost anyone can create tracks consumers might enjoy. However, once great recordings have been created (in a studio or on a computer), consumers still have to “discover” them before they know if they like them. Who can accomplish that? The answer is you if you know how the industry works, and of course, the experts at the music companies and labels whose business it is to make recordings and acts profitable. Just because you can create great-sounding tracks on a computer does not mean that you can sell them. Consumers usually want more—an artist with an image, live shows, merchandise, physical copies, and things they can hear, see, dream about, associate with, get emotionally excited about, and hopefully spend money on. Therefore, creating tracks in a studio or on a computer is only one of the ingredients required for success in the business.

Super Producers

Because of the financial problems caused by P2P and consumer behavior, some of the artists and their labels are hiring superproducers. These are the guys who wear about five hats at once as they produce the tracks using software programs in their own home studios, play the instruments, sing background harmonies, audio engineer, mix, and sometimes even develop the business plan and budgets. Labels save the cost of renting studios and hiring musicians and singers, and they often find that the tracks sound great and are delivered faster and at significant financial savings. Now that you understand a little more about the recording process and the business, let’s take a look at what it might cost to actually record in a studio using union musicians.

Types of Recording Sessions (Scales and Rates)

There are several types of actual recording sessions, with the differences being based on union or nonunion agreements and if you live in a right-to-work state. The amount of money the recording team members receive is based on their fame, track record, contacts, and the kind of sessions the label authorizes. Record budgets are usually determined in advance by the label or whoever will own the copyright of the recording, just as music publisher own the copyrights of the songs. Budgets are based on many factors, such as the cost of the royalty artists, harmony singers, union agreements, the purpose of the recordings, and the producer’s and engineers’ fees. However, the types of sessions are usually based on the union scale. These are distinguished as follows:

• Master scale is the highest level of union recording session payment for the musicians, with the final master recording (owned by the label) having no restriction on the number of units they can press, sell, and offer for digital download. However, in all types of sessions, the labels also acquire a mechanical license for the use of the song from the music publishers. Remember the © is the notice the songs being recorded are copyrighted, and the ℗ is the notice the recording of the songs is also copyrighted. A ™ by the name of the label indicates the name of the label is trademarked, and the ® by the label or artist’s name is the notice the names are trademarked and registered with the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office.
• Limited pressing means what the title claims, limited sales of units. The label may use the master recording to press, press and sell, or digitally download (or any combination thereof), or give away the limited number of only 10,000 copies (units). In addition, limited pressing session recordings may not be used as movie soundtracks, original cast shows or theater presentations, or TV productions. Why would anyone want to pay a limited pressing scale? Easy—the musicians cost less and if we’re not sure how well the album might sell, then the label still gets the great musicians at a lower rate. What happens if the album takes off and sells 10,001 copies? Then the label or the producer has to pay the difference in the LP scales and master scale fees. Also, remember the word “master” here means two different things. There are “master” recording sessions, which mean high-scale payments to musicians listed as a “master scale.” Then there are the “master recordings,” which are the raw and mixed-down versions of the studio recordings owned by the label used to make CDs and digital download copies for sale to the public.
• Low-budget union recordings are also available for labels and producers. In this case, the producer has to sign a side letter stating the total cost of the production will not exceed $99,000. There is also a “concept” album, a type of low-budget album with a production limit of $40,000. Producer fees are excluded in low-budget recordings like these. Once again, the reason for the type of session is to keep the artist’s and musicians’ costs low. If the cost of the project exceeds the budget limits, then the difference between master scale and low-budget scale must be paid, as with the limited pressing recording option described earlier.
• Demo session recordings and their copies can’t be sold as they are used to demonstrate (demo) a song or vocalist being pitched to industry executives. Demo sessions, or calls, are typically scheduled for either a two- or three-hour time frame. As an example, the music publisher uses demo sessions to quickly record 3–5 songs an hour with “unknown” singers and very basic instrumentation. Those recordings may then be pitched to major labels, artists, managers, and film supervisors. Everyone knows that if the demo is picked up, then the song will be recorded again with major studio musicians and a signed royalty artist. The key is the “feel” of the demo to capture the essence of the energy in the song or abilities of an aspiring singer, or to showcase the fit of the song with the label, and/or to generate enough interest to get financial backing from the label to proceed with the recording.
• Indie or nonunion recording sessions are often accomplished in right-to-work states, sidestepping union-generated labor requirements. Anybody can record talent without using union members. Yet, most nonunion sessions are by nonprofessional artists, engineers, and producers who are in the process of developing their creative abilities. In addition, many states have right-to-work laws that allow for nonunion recordings. The best musicians and vocalists are usually union members and most likely (but are not supposed to) work for less than union scale. Unions help protect their members from unscrupulous producers, scam artists, and financially shaky record labels that promise payments but rarely deliver. Additionally, most nonunion recordings are used only for pitching songs and showcasing potentially new recording artists. If a label signs a nonunion act, it will usually (as it is a signatory to union agreements) recut the tracks with union musicians or pay the difference between what the musicians were paid and union scale. Additional nonunion sessions by bands and other acts that create their own labels are fine if uploading the works to the Internet or using subdistributors, such as CD Baby.

The rate scales fluctuate, but Table 7.1 shows you what they were for 2015–16. Over the past several years, the changes have been minimal.

Employer Terms

AFM musicians are hired “by the session call” (three hours, except for demo sessions, which can be either two or three hours), and AFTRA vocalists are hired by “the hour or number of songs recorded per hour” with a two-hour minimum (whichever is greater). Producers are usually hired “by the side” (one song) and paid half up front (when they agree to do the project) and the other half when the label accepts the final master tape. Some also receive “producer points” (often 1%–3%) out of the royalty artist’s points. Audio engineers may be hired by the hour, session, day, or project. Studios may be rented by the hour, session, day, or project.

Typically, only the very best studio musicians and vocalists receive master session calls. A traditional master recording session is a three-hour call with a maximum length of 15 minutes of actual saved recorded time, four sides (songs), and a limited number of overdubs for corrections and sweetening. However, there are also overtime rates that, of course, cost more. One of the musicians must be declared “the leader” for the musicians and there is a correspondingly “a contractor” for the singers. Union musicians (AFM) must have a leader (one musician), who is paid double scale and acts as the main communication link between the other musicians and producer. The leader also provides the “card” that is signed by the musicians and turned into the union, who then bills the label for the musicians’ work. All AFM session players are paid scale (set rates) depending on the type of session, plus $24 for health and welfare and an additional 11.99% of the gross scale session as scale pension (EP) funds. A typical recording budget often appears as follows.

Recording Budget Expenses

SAG-AFTRA Scales

The SAG-AFTRA contractor (leader), distinct from the AFM contractor, is paid a range of $50+ per hour or song as the leader of the singers on union calls. This person is paid a per-hour rate or a number of songs rate, whichever is higher. In addition, stacking or adding vocalists—say, having three singers record it twice to sound like six—is an additional call. The SAG-AFTRA contractor provides the “card” and other paperwork submitted to the union for payment. SAG-AFTRA’s payment scale is determined differently than the AFM scale, which can drive anyone crazy until you’ve experienced it. Payments depend on the “number of sides” or “actual master takes,” the number of overdubs, also called a side, and the length of the actual recording in minutes and seconds, which is used as a multiplier. Thus, if we add all the “sides” together and the length of each is a total of less than four and one-half minutes, the producer or label is billed for one side at scale. If, however, the takes add up to a figure between 4:31 and 9:00 minutes then the bill is doubled to two sides. Overdubbing adds sides to the total. A new recording or side in each multitrack is an additional side. So, to calculate the number of sides, take the original track, add any overdubs or additional tracks recorded, and multiply by the corresponding multiplier based on the actual length of the recording. Whew!

Contingent Scale

The musicians and vocalist may receive postrecording payments based on units sold. Of course, with the streaming and free downloads contingent payment checks have almost stopped hitting the mailboxes. Still, if you were a musician or vocalist on the last Taylor Swift album, you’re probably in good shape—more money is headed toward your mailbox—because she refused to make it available for streaming. As an example, in the SAG-AFTRA agreement, vocalists receive between 50% of their original check to 75% based on the number of unit sales over 157,500 units. If the album or recording is sold at gold (500,000 units), then it’s 60%, and anything over 1,000,000 (which is called a platinum record) receives 75% of the original recording scale.

Just think—we had to know all of this stuff or hire someone who gets it before we completed a simple professional album. Wow, take a shot at what else you need to know if you’re going to produce a movie, TV show, or computer game. It’s really a great, wonderful, yet complicated business, isn’t it? Okay, now that we have seen the rules of the game, let’s determine a typical recording budget.