CHAPTER

8

Human Resource Development

Human resource development (HRD) focuses on the talent, knowledge, and performance of the workforce in an organization in an effort to meet the current and future needs of the organization. Developing, implementing, and evaluating activities and programs that address employee training and development, performance appraisal, and performance management is at the core of HR responsibility. The PHR exam carries an 18 percent weight on the exam for HRD and the SPHR gives a 19 percent focus.

Responsibilities

• Ensure that human resources development activities are compliant with all applicable federal laws and regulations.

• Conduct a needs assessment to identify and establish priorities regarding human resource development activities.

• Develop/select and implement employee training programs (for example: leadership skills, harassment prevention, computer skills) to increase individual and organizational effectiveness.

• Evaluate effectiveness of employee training programs through the use of metrics (for example: participant surveys, pre- and post-testing).

• Develop, and evaluate talent management programs that include assessing talent, developing career paths, and managing the placement of high-potential employees.

• Develop, implement, and evaluate performance appraisal processes (for example: instruments, ranking and rating scales) to increase individual and organizational effectiveness.

• Develop, implement, and evaluate performance management programs and procedures (includes training for evaluators).

• Develop/select, implement, and evaluate programs (for example: telecommuting, diversity initiatives, repatriation) to meet the changing needs of employees and the organization.

• Provide coaching to managers and executives regarding effectively managing organizational talent.

Knowledge of

• Applicable federal laws and regulations related to human resources development activities (for example: Title VII, ADA, Title 17 [Copyright law])

• Career development and leadership development theories and applications (for example: succession planning, dual career ladders)

• Organizational development (OD) theories and applications

• Training program development techniques to create general and specialized training programs

• Facilitation techniques, instructional methods, and program delivery mechanisms

• Task/process analysis

• Performance appraisal methods (for example: instruments, ranking and rating scales)

• Performance management methods (for example: goal setting, relationship to compensation, job placements/promotions)

• Applicable global issues (for example: international law, culture, local management approaches/practices, societal norms)

• Techniques to assess training program effectiveness, including use of applicable metrics (for example: participant surveys, pre- and post-testing)

• Mentoring and executive coaching

Core Knowledge of

• Needs assessment and analysis

• Third-party or vendor selection, contract negotiation, and management, including development or requests for proposals (RFPs)

• Adult learning processes

• Motivation concepts and applications

• Training techniques

• Leadership concepts and applications

• Human relations concepts and applications

• Ethical and professional standards

• Technology to support HR activities

• Qualitative and quantitative methods and tools for analysis, interpretation, and decision-making purposes

• Methods for assessing employee attitudes, opinions, and satisfaction

Federal Laws That Apply to This Body of Knowledge

Now that you’ve reviewed the Human Resources Development responsibilities and knowledge statements, we recommend that you review the federal laws that apply to HRD (see Figure 8-1). The federal laws fall into two categories:

Figure 8-1 Federal laws that apply to human resources development

• Laws that regulate content and intellectual property

• Laws that protect the rights of employees

It would benefit you, the reader, to refer back to Chapter 2 on these specific laws prior to reading any further in this chapter.

HR’s Role in Organizational Development (OD)

First, let’s define what organizational development is. The following is a longstanding definition created by Richard Beckhard in his 1969 book Organization Development: Strategies and Models¹:

Organization Development is an effort (1) planned, (2) organization-wide, and (3) managed from the top, to (4) increase organization effectiveness and health through (5) planned interventions in the organization’s “processes,” using behavioral-science knowledge.

The best way to describe HR’s role in organizational development is as a masterful change agent because planning and managing change are the cornerstones in OD. Helping the workforce adapt to change, embrace the changes, and see the potential possibilities for the organization’s benefit is the responsibility of HR professionals.

Of all the many competencies required for the HR professional, being a masterful change agent is probably the most important because HR professionals not only serve as the catalyst in communicating the change, but they will also be charged with the evaluation of the change and with design or implementation interventions for the change. They will have their hands in diagnosing the environment to determine the readiness of the workgroup that is impacted and needing to accept the change. Then HR professionals move into developing an action plan that determines the strategies to be used to implement the plan. And lastly, they are responsible for evaluating the change to measure the planned effectiveness and behavioral results against what was intended.

Learning Organization

A learning organization is a place “where people continually expand their capacity to create the results they truly desire, where new and expansive patterns of thinking are nurtured, where collective aspiration is set free, and where people are continually learning how to learn together.” It is a systems-level concept in which the organization is characterized by its capacity to adapt to changes in its environment. The organization responds quickly to situations by altering the organizational behavior. A good example is when social media became more than just staying in touch with friends and family. Businesses quickly learned how much power they had to influence customers and thus businesses began creating their own customer fan pages to communicate with customers and provide time-sensitive offers.

The importance of aligning HR initiatives and activities with the overall strategic plan of the organization will require the application of concepts of both a learning organization and organizational learning.

In a learning organization a systems-thinking approach is used, change is embraced, risk is tolerated, and failures are lessons learned. Peter Senge’s The Fifth Discipline outlines the five disciplines that interface and support one another with this systems-thinking concept.

1. Personal mastery Connects personal and organizational learning, merging an individual’s personal vision with their current reality. Commitments happen between the organization and the individual.

2. Mental models Ingrained assumptions that influence how individuals understand their reality and what actions they take.

3. Building shared vision Develops a projection of the future that is shared and creates a genuine commitment on all individuals involved.

4. Team learning Aligns the shared vision of a group and develops their capacities to produce the results the team desires.

5. Systems thinking A framework for seeing patterns and how things interrelate, and how to change things.

When the five disciplines are in use in an organization, learning is matched to employees’ learning preferences, leaders become stewards and teachers, people take responsibility for their own development and learning, and there is an understanding on how to learn, not a sole focus on what needs to be learned. The learning is easily tied to business objectives and it creates a performance-based culture where solving problems and learning new ways not previously used are rewarded. Basically, a learning organization focuses on employees who want to learn to develop new capabilities and reacts to adapt to its environment.²

Organizational Learning

Organizational learning describes the particular activities or processes that occur in an organization with both individuals and teams. An example would be a new payroll cloud-based processing software that all payroll clerks are required to learn to use. In organizational learning, individual learning takes place through self-study, instruction, and observation. Group learning occurs through increasing knowledge, skills, and group instruction.

The characteristics of a culture that supports organizational learning are:

• Recognition of continuous learning in the work environment being as important as the day-to-day work itself

• Quality improvements driving organizational initiatives

• Well-defined core competencies in job descriptions

• Performance rewards based on individual and group learning achievements

• Employees having access to important information such as strategic plans

• A focus on creativity exists

The distinction between organizational learning and a learning organization is that organizational learning exists in every organization.

Change Process Theory

OD and the change process theory go hand-in-hand. Just as there is a predictable series of emotions that occur with significant emotional events, as discussed in Chapter 6, in organizational change, social psychologist Kurt Lewin³ identified three stages of the change process in organizations, as depicted in Figure 8-2. The first stage is called “unfreezing” and involves shifting and dismantling the existing mind set or paradigms. In the second stage, labeled “moving,” is the moment change occurs. It is generally a phase of confusion marked by not knowing what’s next and difficulty in letting go of old ways. The final and third stage is called “freezing.” This is when the new paradigm is taking shape and a tipping point of comfort with the new change is taking hold.

Figure 8-2 Change process theory

Like all good planning methods, with organizational changes, communication must be crystal clear on the long-term goals for the change, along with actions steps on how the change will take place.

Training and Development

Training and development are core value functions of the HR department. The process of training provides skills and abilities, plus knowledge that is focused on a specific outcome. The intent is a short-term focus for the immediate application for on-the-job use by the trainee(s).

On the other hand, with development activities, there is a longer-term focus that prepares the intended trainee(s) for future job skill or knowledge needs, to increase their effectiveness for the organization.

In all T&D activities, it is imperative that the learning objectives and programs developed be aligned with the strategic goals and objectives of the organization, along with a strong level of support from line management.

A systematic process is used to determine the needs for training, developing the training, and evaluating the outcomes. One of the most widely used standard processes is known as the ADDIE model.

ADDIE represents:

• Assessment In this first phase, data is received and collected to identify where there may be lack of productivity or gaps in desired performance. Individually or within groups, this assessment will point the way to what specific knowledge, skills, and abilities are lacking and need to be addressed for training and development objectives.

• Design The initial information from the assessment phase is decided upon for course content, delivery methods, and tactics for delivery. The result is an outline of what the training design will be and the order of presentation.

• Development The pencil meets the paper in this phase, and the actual training materials and coursework are created. Courses and training materials may already be available off the shelf, or a customized or modified creation may occur. For training that is highly specific and customized to the organization, a course may be developed from scratch to fit the specific objectives to reach the desired outcome, such as in a new product launch for a product that has never before existed. An example might be the new Apple watch.

• Implementation In this phase, the training program is delivered to the trainees. A pilot training program might first occur to work out any kinks and revise material. Participant selection and scheduling occur during this phase and the where, when, and whom to deliver occur in this phase, too.

• Evaluation Just as the label indicates, the end results and outcomes of the training require an evaluation—both from the participants trained and the learning objectives measurement. The evaluation phase will typically last some months after the training to measure the changes and performance indicators for sustained results.

Training Needs Assessment and Analysis

As the ADDIE approach suggests, the first phase in training is to conduct a needs assessment and analysis. The needs assessment is a process in which HR identifies the training needs and identifies the specific training to help the intended trainees to meet the organization’s objectives. A thorough needs assessment will dive into the possible training needs on three levels: organizational, task, and individual.

When conducting a needs assessment, processes used in strategic planning are utilized (see Chapter 6 for a more in-depth discussion). Processes such as environmental scanning, and SWOT analysis (strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, threats) are helpful. A needs assessment model that follows a problem-solving structure is helpful for HR’s role in strategic management. For some organizations, an outside vendor is utilized for the needs assessment phase.

Establishing Training Objectives

Determining what the training objectives are is necessary for measuring the outcome of the training. Objectives relate to the results that the participants in the training will be able to do or perform at the end of the program. They provide a focus for the design. Objectives provide a guide for training participants on what they are intended to know by the end of the training. The objectives assist in ensuring that there is the intended knowledge/skill transfer. Objectives provide a means to measure what was learned. When designing training objectives, much like the design of an individual’s performance goal objects discussed in Chapter 6, employing the use of the SMART outline is helpful. (SMART stands for: specific, measurable, action-oriented and achievable, realistic/relevant, and timed.) Composing objectives with the SMART outline and the use of action verbs such as “identify,” “describe,” and “define,” will guide the objective of the learning. An example of an objective might be something like this: “With the knowledge and techniques taught in this three-day training course on operating the new widget processor, the participant will be able to operate the widget processor at a 100 percent production capacity.”

Selecting Training Programs

Once the training program has been identified and the participants targeted for training, and with the objectives set, it’s now time to select the training program. The organization’s size and available resources are usually the major deciding factors as to whether to develop and deliver a training program using in-house talent or to purchase a program off the shelf. Advantages for using an outside training consultant/vendor company and purchasing an off-the-shelf program include the following:

• The immediate availability for scheduling the training with an existing program.

• An off-the-shelf program is typically less expensive than developing a program in-house.

• Outside consultants can have instant credibility and respect with the participants.

On the other hand, the major disadvantages are that the training may be too “one size fits all” and not tailored to the organization 100 percent.

Developing Training Programs

When using both in-house and outside vendors for the development of training programs, it’s important to avoid reinventing the wheel or covering the same subject matter that has already been done. It’s important that the consistency of what has already been covered in training have a relevance and consideration in the development cycle. With the advent of newer technology, HRIS and other resource planning software systems can keep track of classifying the content of training programs. Many organizations have learning management systems (LMS) that track and manage employee training from registrations, to career development plans, to other training activities, including required legal training.

Implementing Training Programs

Implementation usually involves a number of elements that will influence the success of the training program. This is the most visible stage of the ADDIE process because success is to be measured on the learning that takes place during the delivery of the training. At this stage, the HR professional puts on a marketing hat and begins touting the benefits of the training program launch. Giving intended participants a preview of the topics and what they can expect is helpful in creating interest, preparation, and motivation. The delivery of the training success lies now with the facilitator/instructor.

Selecting a Training Facilitator

Whether an internal or external facilitator is utilized for the training delivery, effective facilitators are those who understand the various methods for delivering the content in a manner that it can be received. Deciding whether the material requires a subject matter expert or a technical expert is important for answering the questions and conducting the problem scenario exercises. The goal is to find the right mix of experience based on the program’s content and the intended participants to be trained. When technical content needs delivery, the pairing of a technical training expert, perhaps with an outside vendor, with an internal training facilitator might be the best solution to meet the organization’s needs.

Instructional and Delivery Methods

There is no one perfect teaching method for every situation. As a matter of fact, the method that should be used will depend upon the training circumstances and the material being covered. There are teacher-centered instructional methods and learner-centered instructional methods.⁴ According to University of Tennessee’s Bob Annon, instructional methods are the manner in which learning materials are presented to students.

Adult Learning Processes and Principles

Adult learning principles have a single track focus, trainability. Trainability is concerned with the readiness to learn and its associated motivation. Andragogy is the study of how adults learn, and it is based on five assumptions about learning in adults versus children. As people mature they shift to:

1. Self-concept Their concept of self moves toward self-direction and self-sufficiency.

2. Experience They accumulate more experience that they tuck away and can access in learning situations.

3. Readiness to learn They adjust to a readiness state for learning due to developmental requirements associated with developmental needs that correlate to the stage of life and the social roles they have (for example, parent, homeowner).

4. Orientation to learning They shift from subject-focused to problem-focused learning that has immediate applicability.

5. Motivation to learn Motivation for learning comes from an internal source within rather than external.

As training programs are being designed and delivered, these needs of adult learners should be incorporated. Real-world examples and emphasis on how the training is going to be immediately applied are helpful.

Learning Styles

All adults have a particular learning style that best suits their ability to learn. Understanding these learning styles will assist you in the creation of a learning environment within your organization, allowing you to accommodate each style with the delivery of training.

Additionally, as a presenter or trainer, knowing your own learning style will enhance your ability to adjust your preference of delivery methods, so you won’t fall into the comfort of just your style, and can shift your delivery to meet the needs of all participants. Also knowing your own learning style will assist you in your career with problem solving, managing conflict, negotiations, teamwork, and career planning.

There are three learning styles: auditory, visual, and kinesthetic.

1. Auditory learners tend to benefit most from lecture-style. Present information by talking so they can listen. Auditory learners succeed when directions are read aloud or information is presented and requested verbally, because they interpret the underlying meanings of speech through listening to tone of voice, pitch, speed, and other nuances.

2. Visual learners rely upon a seeing presentation style: “Show me and I’ll understand.” These learners do best when seeing facial expressions and body language. It helps them understand content of what is being taught because they think in pictures, diagrams, charts, pictures, videos, computer training, and written directions. These students will value to-do lists, flip charts, and written notes. They need and want to take detailed notes to absorb the information.

3. Kinesthetic learners are also called tactile learners. They learn via a hands-on approach and prefer to explore the physical aspects of learning. Sitting for long periods of time is difficult for these learners for they need activity in order to learn. Kinesthetic learners are most successful when totally engaged with the learning activity such as in role playing, practicing, and with topics that can use the senses of feeling and imagining.

Learning Curves Besides having different learning preference styles, adults also learn at different rates. This is referred to as learning curves. A learning curve is a graphical representation of the increase of learning (vertical axis) with experience (horizontal axis). The factors that determine how quickly an adult will learn are:

1. The person’s motivation for learning

2. The person’s prior knowledge or experience

3. The specific knowledge or task that is to be learned

4. The person’s aptitude and attitude about the knowledge or skill to learn

The four most common learning curves are:

1. Increasing returns This is the pattern that comes into play when a person is learning something new. The start of the curve is slow while the basics are being learned. The learning increases and takes off as knowledge or skills are acquired. This curve assumes that the individual will continue to learn as time progresses. An example would be when an IT programmer needs to learn a new coding language. Learning will be slow at first until they grasp the new coding protocol, and after mastering the basics, the learning becomes easier and/or quicker as they learn more about the particular language.

2. Decreasing returns This pattern is when the amount of learning increases rapidly in the beginning and then the rate of learning slows down. The assumption with this learning curve is that once the learning is achieved, the learning then stops. This occurs with routine tasks learning and is the most common type of learning curve. An example is when a data entry clerk learns how to enter a sales order—the learning is complete.

3. S-shaped This learning curve is a blend of the increasing and decreasing returns curves. The assumption with this learning curve is that the person is learning something difficult, such as problem solving or critical thinking. Learning may be slow at the beginning until the person learning becomes familiar with the learning material, and at that point, learning takes off. The cycle continues with a slow to faster progression as new material is presented. An example of this is when a production lead is trained on new equipment, yet this equipment has not been utilized in the production of the product before. There might be a trial and error for adjustments until the new production equipment is working as expected and is adjusted to the new product. Then when another product is introduced, the equipment and process needs adjusting again until everything works smoothly.

• Plateau curve Just as the name suggests, learning on this curve is quick in the beginning and then flattens or plateaus. The assumption is that the plateau is not permanent and that with additional coaching, training, and support the person learning can ramp up again. With this curve, it can be frustrating to the learner if they are not getting the support and additional training needed to master the task. An example of the plateau curve is a salesperson who has met quotas in the past, and when a new line of equipment is introduced into the product line, the salesperson is provided a minimal level of training/knowledge about it, but not enough training to answer all the questions of the prospective customers. The anticipation of additional sales with the new product is not being achieved because the salesperson requires more training in order to pitch the new product and convince the customer to purchase.

The four most common learning curves are illustrated in Figure 8-3.

Figure 8-3 Learning curves

Learning Levels Knowing the styles of learning and learning curves are essential, yet understanding the levels of adult learning is critical to being able to meet adult learning objectives. According to the principles of classification known as Bloom’s taxonomy, training objectives are divided into three domains: cognitive, affective, and psychomotor (which is loosely described as “knowing/head,” “feeling/heart,” and “doing/hands”). Within the domains, there are six levels of cognitive learning⁵:

1. Knowledge: this level of cognitive learning is where the learner recalls specific facts and instruction.

2. Comprehension: this level of learning allows the learner to interpret information.

3. Application: this is the ability to use the learned information in new experiences and situations.

4. Analysis: this cognitive learning is the understanding of information and being able to apply it and see how it connects and fits together with other information.

5. Synthesis: this level is where the learner is able to respond to new experiences and dissect problems, consider appropriate tactics for solutions.

6. Evaluation: this is the highest level of cognitive learning wherein the learner will make judgments.

Motivation Concepts

Three underlying principles of human behavior are directly linked to motivation.

• All human behavior is caused. This means that people have a reason for doing what they do.

• All behavior is focused on achieving an end result, or goal. People do things to attain something, tangible or intangible. Their behavior is not random, though it could be unconscious.

• Every person has a unique fingerprint and is unique in that no one has the exact experience, heredity, or environmental/relationship influences.

Understanding these principles of human behavior will assist you as an HR professional with motivational pursuits, not just in the learning process, but in all matters related to the work and employment relationship, especially engagement.

There are several other longstanding motivational theories and we will briefly review to refresh your memory about what you most likely learned in your secondary educational endeavors.

Maslow’s Hierarchy Needs In Maslow’s theory, there are five basic human needs arranged in a pyramid, necessitating that the first level (bottom of the pyramid) must be met first before moving up the pyramid. Figure 8-4 shows Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. Lower-level needs on the pyramid will always have some influence on behavior.⁶

Figure 8-4 Maslow’s hierarchy of needs

You can fulfill these needs in the workplace through the following:

• Safety and security Employment security such as an employment contract, pay and benefits, working conditions

• Belonging and love Teams, good leadership, participation in groups, employee associations, customer base assignments

• Esteem Training, recognition, awards, special assignments

• Self-actualization Job growth opportunities, project team participation, becoming a mentor

NOTE It’s important to recognize today that not all motivational models of Western culture, like Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, are going to apply in many of the global and diverse organizations of today.

Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory This theory asserts that employees have two different categories of needs and that they are essentially independent of each other, but they affect behavior in differing ways: hygiene factors, which are considered extrinsic, and motivational factors, which are considered intrinsic. The latter is associated with recognition, achievement, and personal growth–related events in the job, whereas hygiene factors are associated with job security, pay, working conditions, supervision, and co-worker relations that can quickly lead to job dissatisfaction.

McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y McGregor’s theory offers two approaches to motivating employees: Theory X, which suggests an authoritative management style because it assumes that employees inherently do not like to work and must be controlled and closely monitored; and Theory Y, which suggests a participative style of management, under the belief that employees dislike controls and inherently want to do their best. It is obvious to see that a Theory Y type of supervisor will provide better leadership and produce greater satisfaction.

Teacher-Centered Approaches

Elements of a teacher-centered approach include the following:

• Demonstration Showing participants how something is done

• Direct instruction Conveying concepts and skills

• Lecture Passive participants reception of instruction

• Lecture-discussions Questions added to lecture

Learner-Centered Approaches

The following are elements of a learner-centered approach:

• Case studies Require application of knowledge to respond to a “real” problem.

• Cooperative learning Small group working on solving a problem or completing a task.

• Discussion Classroom or online interaction among participants and with the teacher.

• Discovery Using prior knowledge and experience to discover new things.

• Graphic organizers Diagrams, maps, and webs as illustrations of material.

• Journals/blogs Recordings of reflections and ideas.

• K-W-L Structured table showing columns with what participants know (K), what they want to know (W), and what they learned in the end (L).

• Learning centers Independent or small group work aimed at completing a task.

• Role-play Solving problems through action or performance.

• Scaffolding Teacher modeling skills and thinking for participants, allowing participants to take over those expressions based on the initial structure provided by the teacher.

• Problem-based learning (inquiry learning) Teacher provides a problem where inquiry must be utilized to reach a solution.

• Simulations Situations designed to be as realistic as possible without the risk of a real-life circumstance.

• Storytelling Use of multimedia technology (for example, PowerPoint) to present interactive opportunities involving any subject.

Evaluating the Effectiveness of Training

Training evaluation is dependent upon the objectives that were initially identified for the training. Specific achievement goals that training participants can demonstrate their ability to perform are essential for participants and instructors to use in determining training effectiveness. Training programs should have specific performance-related goals identified. They should answer the question, “What will participants be able to do at the end of the program that they may not have been able to do at the beginning of the program?” Objectives should be stated using verbs to describe behaviors. For example, “By the end of this program, participants will be able to list at least six management skills common to all successful managers, cite at least two sources for information related to management skills measurement, and demonstrate leadership skills in a group exercise.” Each of the training objectives begins with a verb that explains exactly what the participants will be able to do, or say, or the desired behavior. Once the reason for training the target population has been identified as objectives, methods of measurement should be prepared. Sometimes, measurement can be accomplished with written tests; sometimes it requires performance or demonstration. Each measurement should be tailored to the specific objective. If participants are able to meet the training objectives, the training program can be said to be effective. Measuring instructor competencies can be undertaken as a subcategory of metrics.

Evaluation Method There is one widely known model for evaluating training and HR programs, Donald Kirkpatrick’s four levels. Kirkpatrick’s model focuses primarily on evaluating the effectiveness of the training presented.⁷ Figure 8-5 illustrates the four levels.

Figure 8-5 Kirkpatrick’s Four Levels of Evaluating Training

The first level measures the reaction of the participant. A survey given at the conclusion of the training is the most common method. Participants detail how they liked the training and their thoughts as to its applicability. This, however, measures the immediate reaction about the training delivery and its environment rather than their level of learning.

Level two measures how well participants in the training learned facts, concepts, theories, and behaviors. To use this measure normally requires HR professionals or consultants who are trained in statistics and studies to interpret the results. Pre- and post-training measurements are conducted, and control groups may be involved. The results will indicate the effectiveness of the training.

Level three deals with the measurement of behavior and is more difficult to measure than the previous two levels because it can be difficult to determine if behavior changed solely because of the training program; other outside influences could be involved. In level three measurement, observations, interviews, 360 feedback instruments, and simulations can be used. Critical incidents performance by the trainee’s supervisor might be employed.

Level four deals with the measurement of results to determine if the planned effectiveness of the training delivered the desired results. The difficulty with this measurement is with determining if the training was the sole factor affecting the results. Typically a cost-benefit of return on investment (ROI) follows to substantiate the level four results.

When evaluating the training program’s effectiveness, it is important to achieve an objective viewpoint. Solicit information from all affected sources—not just the training participants and presenter, but also the sources affected by the training, which could be other departments, management, and even customers.

Talent Management

Talent management involves all the HR strategies and processes that are involved in attracting, developing, engaging, and retaining the skills/knowledge/abilities of the workforce in order to meet the organization’s needs. Talent management goals are simple: Manage the human resources initiatives that directly result in employee productivity and that address current and future business needs.

This section focuses on the strategies to develop and retain a productive workforce. Additional talent management strategies are covered in more detail in Chapters 7 and 9.

Employee Development Programs

Employee development programs are an important aspect of talent management, providing employees with opportunities to learn new knowledge and skills, preparing them for future responsibilities and job changes, and increasing their capacity to perform in their current jobs. Job rotation, enlargement, and enrichment form one avenue for employee development. Another could be an apprenticeship program that relates to skills training. (For more information, please refer to Chapter 7.)

NOTE The U.S. apprenticeship system is regulated by the Bureau of Apprenticeship and Training (BAT).

Higher education tuition reimbursement programs are also offered by many organizations as part of their employee development program. The pursuit of education is normally restricted to an employee’s current occupation or an occupation that exists within the organization.

Other employee development programs that are increasingly on the rise within organizations are those associated with wellness training, stress management, and work/life balance.

Skills Training

Skills training generally encompasses specific skill sets associated with jobs as identified in job descriptions. Skill development is a constantly moving target because of the nature of changing workplace requirements. With the added complexity of technology and rules/regulations, most jobs will have changing skill set requirements throughout their existence in the organization. Categories of skills training will normally include:

• Sales training

• Technology training

• Technical skills

• Quality training

• Communication skills training

• Emotional intelligence

• Basic on-the-job training

Other skills training may be specifically targeted to supervisory-level positions such as leadership/supervisory skills training, discrimination/harassment prevention training, or diversity and ethics training.

Teams

Bringing together a group of people who can address a given set of issues or problems is the process of team creation. How effective the group will be depends on many things, such as the team leadership and the experience of each member. Teams permit the focus of talent on specific organizational goals.

Employee development strategies could include team participation, involvement on committees, and work teams to expose a group to decision making and collaborative processes. Team assignments can enrich an employee’s experience and perspective, assisting with an employee’s career planning initiatives.

For a team to be effective, all participants need to be clear on the goals they are working toward and what expectations they are to meet and fulfill.

Project Teams

Project teams are formed when specific projects must be completed. People with a specific talent or experience are recruited into the group to contribute their knowledge and skills to resolving the problem or accomplishing some other goal. There is often a team leader who can be an organizational superior or peer of other team members.

Self-Directed Teams

Self-directed teams are groups of people who are given general direction by assignment to resolve an issue or solve a problem. The group selects its own leadership, identifies its own direction, and holds itself accountable for accomplishments.

Task Forces

A cousin of “teams,” task forces are groups of people assembled to research and address major organizational issues. They are composed of individuals with specific experience or knowledge and are expected to “fix” problems that could have significant impact on the organization. Task forces are sometimes used to address system failures (for example, computer or software) or to handle crises (for example, natural disaster or sudden inability to transport goods through a region due to a new local ordinance). Once the solution is found or issue resolved, the task force disbands.

Work Teams

When formed to facilitate production or performance, the group is sometimes referred to as a work team. These are people from the same type of work, usually of the same or similar job class who are working together to generate the production for their segment of the organization. Types of work teams include the following:

• Functional work teams Groups of people from the same function working together to generate production. On an assembly line, or in the accounts receivable department, groups handle the work load as a unit rather than as individuals.

• Cross-functional work teams Groups of people from different functions working together to generate production. On the assembly line, or in the engineering department, individuals with different talents work together to create a unified output. (For example, an engineer works with drafters and technicians to create work drawings for a project. The group may include electricians, construction supervisors, and other interior designers. All functions work together to create one unified result.)

• Virtual work teams With virtual work teams, members are not located in the same facility and, in fact, may work in different parts of the globe. They come together via technology such as Internet facetime meetings to accomplish team assignments that could fall within the scope of work teams.

Career Development

Career development is the lifelong individual process that involves planning, managing, learning, and transitions at all ages and stages in work life. In organizations, it is an organized approach used to match employee goals with the business’s current and future needs. An individual’s work-related preferences and needs continuously evolve throughout life’s phases. At the same time, organizations are also continuously adapting to economic, political, and societal changes.

Career Development Processes

There are two processes in career development: career planning and career management. With career planning, the focus is on the individual. Career management has a focus on the organization.

In career planning, assessing an individual’s skills, talents, experiences, and potential abilities occurs to give direction to a person’s career. HR professionals typically assist with these activities, but many self-assessment instruments are available online for individuals to use.

With career management, this involves implementing and monitoring employee career paths at an organizational level. The individual employee is actively involved; however, the organization is typically providing the development programs and opportunities associated with internal career progression opportunities and succession planning. The intention with career management from the organizational perspective is to assist with aligning existing workforce talent with new business objectives, create an atmosphere of positive morale, and for employee retention of needed talent.

Roles in Managing Career Development

It is not just the individual employee and HR involved in career development. The direct line of management and the organization’s leaders have a role to play, too.

Individuals bear the primary responsibility for their own career. Today, individuals are required to be proactive in planning their career progression and not rely on an organization to direct their career path. Being keenly aware of current assessed traits and skills, along with needs for increased knowledge, skill, and experience associated with the individual’s career ambitions, is largely the responsibility of an individual employee. Figure 8-6 illustrates the stages of an individual’s career development.

Figure 8-6 Individual career development

The direct line of management normally serves as support in helping an individual assess his or her current effectiveness and potential, and provides a broader view of the organization’s career paths. The direct supervisory management will wear many hats, including coach, appraiser, guidance counselor, and resource referral in the employee’s career development planning.

The HR professionals are involved in the development of career pathing, personal development programs, and skill development training in order to enable employees to achieve their career aspirations and goals. Creating a skill inventory database along with work and educational experience of the current workforce is needed in helping the organization assess its current workforce talent. Additionally, HR professionals monitor training and development needs and create programs to meet those needs, along with the communication of job progression opportunities.

The organizational leader’s role in career development includes the communication of the organization’s mission and vision to the workforce, to link the organization’s initiatives and changes with the anticipated talent needs. Fostering a culture of support and internal opportunity for career development is another important function of the organizational leader’s role.

Career Development Programs

Many large organizations create full-fledged career development programs. Some will be self-paced and opt-in by individual employees, and some are created with particular objectives in mind, such as management development programs, where high potential employees are invited to participate. A typical model for a career development program will include stages of:

• Occupational preparation This stage is where occupations are assessed, an occupation is decided upon, and necessary education and skill levels are pursued.

• Organizational entry This is the stage where a person obtains and decides on job offers from organizations they want to work for, or they learn of internal changes within the company they work in and they decide on if they want to go for that.

• Early career establishment In this phase, an employee learns a new job, along with organizational norms and rules for fitting into the job, company, or industry. An employee gains work experience and career skills.

• Mid career In this phase, an employee evaluates his or her career objectives, with an understanding of his or her current life situation, and may choose to shift career direction.

• Late career In this last phase, employees focus on retirement planning, and again, choices associated with life considerations as to the hours they wish to work and the extra effort that may cause additional mental stress. Climbing career progression ladders is not normally in their career plans at this phase, yet mentoring of employees in early career phases would be.

NOTE By understanding the focus of each stage, HR professionals are better equipped to prepare and manage the transitions the employees in their organization will experience.

Dual-Ladder Program

Dual-ladder career development programs allow mobility for employees without requiring that they be placed into the managerial enclave. Mostly associated with technical, medical, engineering, and scientific occupations, this type of program is a way to advance employees who are not interested in pursuing a management track. These individuals exhibit one or more of the following characteristics:

• Have substantial technical or professional expertise beyond the basic levels

• Have licensure or required credentials

• Are known for innovation

• May or may not be well-suited for management or leadership roles

An objective within a dual-ladder development program is to increase complexity and value to the organization, enabling the organization to increase employee salaries to improve employee retention and satisfaction. Lateral movement may occur within a dual-ladder program such as team membership, internal consultative roles, mentorships, or larger facility rotation. Figure 8-7 shows an example of a dual-ladder career path.

Figure 8-7 Dual-ladder career path

Succession Planning

Succession planning systematically identifies, assesses, and develops talent as a key component for business success. It is an ongoing process that enables an organization to plan or recover when critical talent is lost. An effective succession plan includes a focus on identification, development, and preparing the placement of high-potential employees for future opportunities. It is foolish to assume that key players would provide adequate notice of resignation. Succession planning is not just for the planned events such as retirements; it serves for replacement planning such as when a key player is relocating due to family, or perhaps perished in an accident. Succession should be developed to anticipate managerial staffing needs or key employee positions that would interrupt the business process if an incumbent were to vacate.

NOTE Be careful not to exclude employees from a succession plan solely based on their age.

A succession plan contains an identification of high-risk positions along with those positions with known or potentially known vacancy dates (as with retirements). Competencies for those positions are identified and a gap analysis is performed using the current workforce reviewing potential candidates. Individuals within are identified as high-potential employees, which might include their interest/aspiration in the position. After all, not every individual may be interested in moving into a more responsible position. Tentative plans are created for shortages, which may include seeking outside candidates.

HR is typically responsible for maintaining a candidate database of skills and career development plans, along with the monitoring of development activities. Additionally, HR is responsible for the sourcing or creation of training needs for candidates and monitoring their continued interest. Figure 8-8 provides a typical progression of steps in succession planning.

Figure 8-8 Succession planning

Knowledge Management (KM) Knowledge management is a term that relates to the retention and distribution of organizational knowledge. It is the efficient process of capturing, developing, sharing, and handling of information or resources within a business. KM efforts will generally focus on competitive advantage, innovation, the sharing of lessons from the past, integration, and the renewal cycle of continuous improvement in an organization. Its focus is on the management of internal knowledge held by incumbents as a strategic asset and the mentorship in sharing this knowledge.

Coaching and Mentoring

More organizations are realizing the advantages of having coaching and mentoring programs as part of their overall career management strategy. These programs are advantageous for HR for their effectiveness in working one-on-one with individuals, allowing HR the ability to maintain an unbiased position.

Coaching involves one-on-one discussions between the employee and a “coach.” The coach can be internal or external. An internal coach could be a member of the HR team or a line manager. Coaching can involve ongoing activities with a direct supervisor or HR professional that provides discussions focused on the career objectives of an employee, including perspective assessments such as poor job fit or potential growth tracks. External coaches are professionals hired at the organization’s expense who typically work on the development of an employee in a particular area—for example, presentation or communication—or to hone and shift leadership skills. This type of coaching is focused solely on the employee and is confidential and private. At the level of executive coaching, which is more prevalent in organizations of all sizes, a third-party-vendor certified executive coach is utilized to allow executives the freedom to discuss aspects of career/life balance with a high level of trust and nondisclosure.

Mentoring is an action-oriented relationship between two people within the organization, usually a senior and junior colleague. It involves advising, providing opinion and perspective, role modeling, and sharing contacts and networks, along with support. The mentee receives career support and learns the ropes in the organization, and the mentor has the opportunity to share her knowledge and perhaps pass the baton of her job responsibilities on to afford the mentee a chance to move out of her current role. Mentorships can occur at all levels in an organization. They can be formally designed by HR, such as part of the onboarding orientation process, or they can be part of a succession planning program.

Employee Retention

According to the SHRM’s Future of the U.S. Labor Pool Survey Report,⁸ three out of ten employees in the workforce are retiring each year for the next 12 years. That creates a large knowledge gap and an emphasis on passing institutional knowledge on to employees via replacement/succession planning. Yet a plan is only going to work as designed if the identified candidates remain employed with the organization. Retention is the ability to keep talented employees. The importance of retention has moved to the top of the priority list in today’s global competitive marketplace because of the following factors:

• An improved economy rebounding from the recession causing the job market to improve

• Retirement of the baby boomers and a likely shortage in skills/knowledge-based labor

• The increase of global competition

• Economic factors resulting in cost of living substantially increasing

• Technological advancements

• Generational motivation differences

Employee Suggestion Systems

Having an employee suggestion system is an employee engagement and involvement strategy that goes hand-in-hand with employee retention. When employees feel their opinion counts, or their perspective is “heard,” they are more likely to turn away from third-party representation.

Employee suggestion systems, anonymous or not, can provide management with a way to “hear” the workforce for both positive ideas, and negative issues or perceptions. Many improvements are discovered through employee suggestion systems that are considered at upper management levels in an organization. Often, HR is the gatekeeper responsible for screening or compiling the employee suggestions. It’s important that employee suggestions are acknowledged and given serious consideration, and that responses are provided in a timely manner.

Employee Focus Groups

When a large cross-section of employee opinions or perspectives is needed, an employee focus group from various units, functions, and facilities in an organization is used. Surveys can solicit the input from the entire employee population, and there are survey instruments that can compile this input for HR, but a focus group offers the opportunity to have two-way dialogue for clarity and probing purposes. The employees, however, must feel safe providing candid and honest feedback, which is a reason why either HR or an outside consultant will conduct employee focus groups.

When an organization is bleeding from key and high performers exiting, a focus group of existing employees might be in order to learn what the root cause of the exodus is.

Challenges in Talent Management

Organizations may not always realize why they are losing talent. There exists special challenges in talent management, even though the organization may have a plethora of training and development programs in place. Not all careers will take an upward or positive direction for every employee. In fact, some long-term employees may hit a wall and go nowhere.

Plateaued Careers

How do you maintain the productivity, loyalty, and commitment of an employee who is not considered promotable? They have been good performers in the past, and they may be years away from retirement, though suddenly their performance growth hits a mile-long plateau. The challenge is in seeking ways to expand skills, create new levels of motivation and interest, keep the employee engaged in the organization’s vision, and work them into a process where their knowledge and talents due to lengthy experience can benefit the organization. Some employees see this as a pigeon-hole, and yet their high salary expense can become an issue as their cost of employment becomes inequitable to their productivity.

Glass Ceilings

Glass ceiling is another talent management issue as well as a federal legal issue. The federal government found it to be such a big issue that the Federal Glass Ceiling Commission was created in 1991 and its mandate was to identify the glass ceiling barriers that have blocked the advancement of minorities and women. The commission also studies the successful practices and policies of organizations that have led to the breaking of glass ceilings and advancing minorities and women into decision-making power positions. Organizations are recognizing that glass ceilings are not healthy for business because of shifts in labor force demographics, changes in their marketplace, and of course the globalization of their industries.

Boards of directors and senior management are creating glass-ceiling initiatives to help all employees, regardless of gender and ethnicity, reach their full employment potential. There is bottom-line value and economic advantages to the business, and then there is the practicality of keeping the EEOC from issuing a audit notice. Glass ceiling legal issues are more fully discussed in Chapter 5.

Performance Management

Performance management is a systematic process that helps improve organizational effectiveness by providing feedback to employees on their performance results and improvement needs. It is employee accomplishments and contributions that drive the business results of an organization, so a regular feedback system discussing individual performance is at the core of a good performance management system. It ensures that employees are on course for the completion of tasks and goals that are aligned with the organization’s goals, and that the resources and support are provided for the employee to perform such functions.

Employee performance management systems include the following:

• Delegating and planning work

• Setting expectations for performance results

• Continually monitoring performance

• Developing a capacity to perform to new levels for personal and professional growth

• Periodically rating performance in a summary fashion

• Providing recognition and rewarding good performance

As discussed in Chapter 6, creating and communicating the organization’s vision, mission, strategies, specific goals, and values form the foundation that is needed for the performance management system. Then performance standards are agreed upon by both the line management and the employee on what the job requires and what will be measured. At this stage, it is essential that employees clearly understand the standards, including expected behavior standards set forth for their jobs. Feedback is the next stage and can be both informal and formal. Formal feedback would entail a written performance appraisal.

When it comes to performance management within a global organization, there are additional considerations. Different cultural values and societal norms will affect the definition of standards and performance criteria as it relates to a global workforce. Different languages will also have to be considered for the interpretation of performance definitions and standards. Recognizing that there are differing behaviors for different cultures can be a challenge for setting behavioral standards and expectations of individuals.

Performance Standards

Employees need to know and understand what specific performance is expected of them in performing their jobs and the acceptable behavior. This communication begins with the very first discussion in a job interview and certainly with the job offer and new hire onboarding orientation. The discussion continues on a consistent basis both with the reinforcement of organizational standards that are outlined in employee handbooks and other written material, and with performance appraisal review sessions. The clearer the expectations set for employees, the greater the success in having expectations met.

NOTE In order for employees to meet job expectations, there needs to be a direct relationship between the job description’s competency requirements and the performance objectives.

Performance Appraisal Methods

Performance appraisals satisfy three purposes:

• Providing feedback and coaching

• Justifying the allocation of rewards and career opportunities

• Helping with employee career planning and development plans

For the organization, performance appraisals can foster commitment and align people to contribute to initiatives with their upcoming performance contributions. The most common performance appraisal method involves just two people: the employee and his or her direct supervisor. In some companies, others are asked to be involved in the appraisals such as peers, another level of management, and sometimes colleagues in the organization whose job function interacts with the employee. These are known as 360 degree appraisals.

Methods for rating the performance can be completely narrative, management by objectives (MBO) discussed in another section of this chapter, behaviorally anchored ratings (BARS), category rating, and comparative ratings with others in like functions.

The least complex of the methods is the category rating where the reviewer simply checks a level of rating on a form. Three types of rating formulas are typically used in category ratings:

• Graphic scale The most common type, where the appraiser checks a place on the scale for the categories of tasks and behaviors that are listed. A typical scale is 5 points where 1 means not meeting expectations or low, and 5 means exceeding expectations or high. These types of performance appraisals normally have a comments section that the appraiser completes that provides justification for the rating.

• Checklist Another common appraisal rating in which the appraiser is provided with a set list of statements/words to describe performance. The appraiser selects the one word or statement that best describes the performance—for example, “Employee consistently meets all deadlines” or “Employee consistently misses deadlines”.

• Forced choice A variation of the checklist approach, but in the checklist method, the appraiser is required to check two of four statements. One check is for the statement that is most like the employee’s performance and the other check is for the statement that is least like the employee’s performance—a combination of positive and negative statements. This method can be difficult to convey to employees and understand from an employee’s perspective.

With comparative methods, employee performance is compared directly with others in the same job. The appraiser will rank the employees in a group from highest to lowest in performance. This causes a forced distribution known as a bell curve. Ten percent will fall in the highest and lowest of the rating scale, another 20 percent will fall on either side, and then 40 percent will meet job standards and expectations. An obvious fault with this type of system is suggesting that a percentage of employees will fall below expectations. Figure 8-9 displays a bell curve distribution.

Figure 8-9 Bell curve distribution

Narrative evaluations are time consuming for an appraiser to complete, yet they can be the most meaningful to the employee being evaluated. There are three methods that are the most common for the narrative appraisal.

• Essay format The appraiser writes an essay type of narrative describing each category of performance.

• Critical incident The appraiser is logging dates and details of both good and not so good performance incidents. This method requires the appraiser to be keeping good, detailed notes on a routine basis during the appraisal period and not relying solely on an employee’s most recent performance.

• Behaviorally anchored rating methods Referred to as BARS, this appraisal method describes desirable behavior and undesirable behavior. Examples are then compared with a scale of performance level for the rating. BARS works well in circumstances in which several employees perform the same function. A BARS appraisal system requires extensive time to develop and maintain to keep the performance dimensions up-to-date as the job functions change. However, the BARS methods offer a more accurate gauge of performance measurement, provide clearer standards to employees, and have more consistency in rating.

Self-Assessment

Coupled with the direct supervisory management evaluation, many employees are asked to self-assess their performance. This approach assists with creating a truly two-way dialogue in the evaluation interview and offers an opportunity for the employee to provide his own perception of his performance. Additionally, it engages employees in a proactive means of creating goals and objectives, along with triggering a discussion about career development. Figure 8-10 provides an example of a self-assessment—both a category rating along with open-ended questions to elicit a narrative commentary.

Figure 8-10 Self-assessment performance appraisal

Shortcomings of Performance Appraisals

As with any subjective system, and performance appraisals are subjective because they are based on people’s perceptions and opinions, there can be shortcomings. Here are the most common errors made on the part of appraisers:

• Halo This occurs when the employee is doing well in one area and is therefore rated high in all areas.

• Horn This occurs when an employee is demonstrating a strong weakness and is thus rated low in all other areas.

• Bias This happens when the evaluator’s bias (consciously or unconsciously) influences and distorts his or her perspective.

• Recency A recency error occurs when more emphasis is placed on a recent occurrence and all earlier performances during the review period are discounted.

• Primacy The opposite of recency. The evaluator gives more weight and emphasis to earlier performances, discounting more recent performance.

• Strictness An evaluator is reluctant to give high ratings, and his or her standards are higher than other evaluators.

• Leniency The evaluator does not provide low scores and instead gives all employees a high rating on their appraisals.

• Central An evaluator rates all of his or her employees in the same range and does not take into account differences of actual performance among the group rated.

• Contrast The evaluator is providing an employee rating based solely on a comparison to that of another employee, and not objective standards.

NOTE These common errors can be avoided with narrative format methods.

HR Interventions

Human resource interventions can be micro level, macro level, and managerial or operational level. They can be interpersonal, technological, or even structurally related. These interventions are commonly referred to as OD interventions. At all levels, OD intervention it is about intervening to make an improvement. Deliberate processes are utilized to introduce change with the overall objective being to change a current condition.

Micro level interventions may involve behavioral or performance issues of individuals who are impacting productivity or the work environment, such as a manager who is causing undue stress and commotion due to bullying leadership tactics. It may be an employee who is causing turmoil in the work unit because he is using inappropriate language within earshot of coworkers. In such circumstances, HR is called upon to intervene if the line management efforts were not effective. The HR professional would consider which type of process or action to take to address the issue.

A macro level intervention would involve more than one individual, perhaps groups. A wellness program to address an increase in workers’ compensation stress claims, teambuilding activities to bring about better relationships with sales and customer service, or a flexible telecommuting arrangement for employees affected by a natural disaster would all fall under the macro category.

An example of managerial- or operational-level interventions is sexual harassment prevention training following an increase in complaints by employees, or the development of a diversity program to combat a cultural issue caused by a global merger.

NOTE The main goal of OD interventions is to find a suitable solution that causes the organization to successfully ride the tide of change that is required.

Conflict Resolutions

Conflict is natural and it is bound to happen in all work settings. In most conflicts, neither party is right or wrong; instead, different opinions collide to create disagreement. The process of conflict resolution involves resolving issues and maintaining effective working relationships. When a direct supervisor is unable to resolve the conflict, HR is normally brought in as an intervention. Clear and open communication is the cornerstone of successful conflict resolution, and thus HR professionals must be skilled communicators. This includes creating an open communication environment that encourages the disconnected parties to talk. Listening and probing with non-defensive inquiries will help dissipate the conflict.

Whether it is coworkers who are jockeying for the desk next to the window, or the employee who wants the room cooler and the other one who doesn’t, an immediate conflict resolution is essential. Steps for conflict resolution involve:

• Acknowledge that an opposing situation exists. Acquaint yourself with what’s happening and be open about the problem.

• Let the individuals express their feelings. Emotions fly and feelings of anger and/or hurt usually accompany conflicts. Before any kind of probing can take place, acknowledge the emotions and feelings.

• Define the problem. What is the issue? What is the negative impact on the work or relationships? Are different personality styles part of the problem? Meet with the opposing parties separately at first and gain their perspective about the situation.

• Determine the underlying need. There is no goal of deciding which person is right or wrong; the goal is to reach a solution that everyone can live with. Looking first for needs, rather than solutions, is a powerful tool for generating win/win options. To discover needs, you must try to find out why people want the solutions they initially propose. Once you understand the advantages their solutions have for them, you have discovered their needs.

• Find common areas of agreement. Agree on the problem; agree on some small change to give a feeling of compromise.

• Find solutions to satisfy needs:

• Generate multiple alternatives.

• Determine which actions will be taken.

• Make sure involved parties buy into actions. (Total silence may be a sign of passive resistance.) Be sure you get real agreement from everyone.

• Determine follow-up to monitor actions and sustained agreements. Schedule a follow-up check-in to determine how the solutions are working and how those involved feel about how the solutions are working.

What if the conflict goes unresolved? If the conflict is causing a disruption in the workplace and it remains unresolved, you may need to explore other avenues. An executive from the organization or an outside consultant such as a mediator may be able to offer other insights on solving the problem. In some cases the conflict becomes a performance issue, and may become a topic for coaching sessions, performance appraisals, or disciplinary action.

Emotional Intelligence

Also referred to as EQ, emotional intelligence deals with the ability an individual has to be sensitive to and understanding of the emotions of others, and to control the expression of their own emotions. Emotional intelligence includes abilities to accurately perceive emotions and to access or generate emotions to assist thought and tap into emotional knowledge. People vary in their levels of EQ and this can affect leadership abilities. Leaders with a high level of EQ are able to influence and motivate others to accomplish goals, collaborate with others effectively, and facilitate issues.

When it comes to an HR intervention involving EQ, the goal is to improve the individual’s interactions and behaviors to increase their effectiveness.

Management by Objectives

Management by Objectives, or MBO, is another HR intervention that basically helps align an employee with the organization’s goals, measuring the accomplishment of goals with quality and quantity as a scorecard. It is a highly effective manner in tying results to goals, and used in HR interventions such as performance improvement programs (PIP).

The term MBO was first introduced in Peter Drucker’s 1954 book The Practice of Management.⁹ It is a management model that aims to improve performance of an organization by clearly defining objectives that are agreed to by both the individual and the line management. According to Drucker, when people have a say in goal setting and action plans, it ensures better participation and commitment on the part of the individual and alignment to organizational goals. Thus, many performance appraisal systems include MBO and incentive bonus awards are linked with an MBO list of organizational goals.

Quality Initiatives

Quality initiatives are siblings of human resources development, the latter focused on employee skills and knowledge development and the former on building excellence—all to help an organization attain the quality level of its products or services expected by its marketplace. The HR professional that links the two and sees how to increase quality in the organization via training and development programs will become the valued internal business partner to senior management. In his book In Search of Excellence, Tom Peters quotes IBM founder Thomas Watson: “If you want to achieve excellence, he said, you can get there today. As of this second, quit doing less-than-excellent work.” That is where HR’s binoculars should be focused, looking for the processes and situations that are producing less than excellent work.

Total Quality Management (TQM)

There are three Total Quality Management pioneers who popularized the concept and strategies for achieving total quality: W. Edwards Deming, Joseph Juran, and Phillip Crosby. Their philosophies vary somewhat.

Deming developed his 14-point program for managing productivity and quality for Japan in the 1950s. In that era, Japan was known for producing “cheap and defective” products. In the 1970s Deming’s philosophy was summarized with the following “a vs. b” comparison:

When people and organizations focus primarily on quality, defined by the following ratio, quality tends to increase and costs fall over time.

However, when people and organizations focus primarily on costs, costs tend to rise and quality declines over time.

Deming’s message to management was that the reason for a company’s poor quality of products was a direct result of management fault and no one else’s. The buck stops here—accountability at the very top!¹⁰

Juran’s philosophy defines quality as “fitness to use,” which focuses on the reliability of a product or service for the customer. Named The Juran Trilogy®, it incorporates quality control, quality planning, and quality improvement, a triage to identify what’s first.¹¹

Crosby also has a 14-point process for quality management. As the quality control manager of the Pershing missile program, Crosby was credited with a 25 percent reduction in the overall rejection rate and a 30 percent reduction in scrap costs. His process has four absolutes: a definition of quality, a prevention system, a performance standard for zero defects, and the cost of nonconformance.¹²

Quality Control Tools There are a number of tools for management and teams to use for process improvement, but the commitment to change is first and foremost. Developing people and shifting behaviors and attitudes is the intervention of HRD, setting the foundation for quality initiatives. Once that is in place, the tools can follow. The most common QC tools are:

• A process-flow analysis, which is a flowchart diagram depicting the process and its results. The Delphi technique discussed in Chapter 5 is a classic example.

• A control chart illustrates a range of lower and upper variations to reach “normal,” similar to the graphing of the weather by meteorologists when discussing normal temperatures.

• A cause and effect diagram, known as the fishbone diagram or Ishikawa diagram, is a visual map that lists the factors that are known to affect a problem. This tool is frequently used in process failures.

• A scatter diagram analyzes relationships between two variables. One variable is plotted on the horizontal axis and the other is plotted on the vertical axis. The pattern of their intersecting points graphically shows relationship patterns.

• A histogram is a graphical display of data using bars of different heights next to each other, also referred to as a bar graph. It represents the distribution of a measurement that answers “How many occurrences are there in each item that is being measured?”

Six Sigma Six Sigma is a quality approach with a set of techniques and tools for process improvement. It was developed in 1986 by Motorola. General Electric CEO Jack Welch brought it fame by making Six Sigma central to his business strategy because it lends itself well to manufacturing. Basically, it is a disciplined data-driven approach and methodology for eliminating defects. Today, it is increasingly used in many sectors such as finance, health, government, and public education.

Six Sigma seeks to improve the quality of process outputs by identifying and removing the causes of defects (errors) and minimizing variability in manufacturing and business processes. The term “six sigma” originated from terminology associated with manufacturing, specifically terms associated with statistical modeling of manufacturing processes. The maturity of a manufacturing process can be described by a sigma rating indicating its yield or the percentage of defect-free products it creates. A six sigma process is one in which 99.99966% of the products manufactured are statistically expected to be free of defects (3.4 defective parts/million), although this defect level corresponds to only a 4.5 sigma level. A Six Sigma defect is defined as anything outside of customer specifications; a Six Sigma opportunity is the total number of chances for a defect.

Six Sigma uses two improvement processes, DMAIC and DMADV:

DMAIC stands for define, measure, analyze, improve, control. It is a system for existing processes falling below specifications and looking for incremental improvement.

DMADV stands for define, measure, analyze, design, verify. It is a system used to develop new processes or products at Six Sigma quality levels.

Both processes are carried out by employees who are experts in the methods and given titles of Black Belts, who are the project leaders, and Master Black Belts, who are quality leaders. Additional labels include Champions and Green and Yellow Belts. Each Six Sigma project carried out within an organization follows a defined sequence of steps and has quantified value targets; for example: reduce process cycle time, reduce pollution, reduce costs, increase customer satisfaction, and increase profits. Additional information on Six Sigma can be found at http://www.isixsigma.com/sixsigma/six_sigma.asp

Leadership Development

In order to have leadership development, first an organization must have a clear understanding and definition of its effective leadership competencies, characteristics, and behaviors that are effective in its culture for producing desired results. Identifying this information is the first step so that developmental activities, measurement processes, and coaching/mentoring can be created.

Leadership is an ability to influence others toward results and goals. It entails keeping the organization’s vision and mission in sight, providing the direction on how that mission and vision will be accomplished, and providing the tools and means to attain them, while motivating or encouraging people to work toward the vision.

Leaders are born and leaders are made. Early childhood experiences such as role models, hardship, mentors, education, and opportunities roll together to craft a leader. The following list consists of possible development opportunities for developing leaders:

• Mentorships from higher management and formal coaching

• Assignment to special projects such as a task force

• Participation in formal leadership development training programs

• Exposure to good leaders as role models, and also to ineffective leadership styles

• Attendance at meetings that exposure the individual to other core functions

• Fast-tracking assignments for broad exposure in their discipline

When it comes to global leadership, HR professionals should recognize that Western leadership theories may not be cohesive with other cultures in the workforce. Leaders and their development need to have a global mindset and an additional set of competencies. Executive Coach Marshall Goldsmith has identified five factors that are most important according to his book Global Leadership¹³:

• Thinking globally

• Appreciating cultural diversity

• Developing technological savvy

• Building partnership and alliances

• Sharing leadership

Leadership development is an ongoing lifelong process and today’s leaders have the task to grow and develop leaders of tomorrow in their organizations.

Leadership Theories

In this section on leadership theories, we recognize that your formal education most likely went into great depth about each of the theories. What follows is a refresher on the basics of the leadership theories that will help you with your OD and HR initiatives.

Situational Leadership Theory

Widely referred to as the Hersey-Blanchard situational leadership theory, the fundamental underpinning of the situational leadership theory is that there is no single “best” style of leadership. Effective leadership is task-relevant, and the most successful leaders are those who adapt their leadership style to the maturity (“the capacity to set high but attainable goals, willingness and ability to take responsibility for the task, and relevant education and/or experience of an individual or a group for the task”) of the individual or group they are attempting to lead or influence. Effective leadership varies, not only with the person or group that is being influenced, but also depends with the task, job, or function that needs to be accomplished. The Hersey-Blanchard Situational Leadership Model rests on two fundamental concepts: leadership style and the individual or group’s maturity level. Figure 8-11 depicts the situational leadership model.

Figure 8-11 Situational leadership model

The Hersey-Blanchard Situational Leadership Theory¹⁴ identified four levels of maturity, M1 through M4:

• M1 Employees still lack the specific skills required for the job in hand and are unable and unwilling to do or to take responsibility for this job or task.

• M2 Employees are unable to take on responsibility for the task being done; however, they are willing to work at the task. They are novice but enthusiastic.

• M3 Employees are experienced and able to do the task but lack the confidence or the willingness to take on responsibility.

• M4 Employees are experienced at the task, and comfortable with their own ability to do it well. They are able and willing to not only do the task, but to take responsibility for the task.

Leadership has four tasks based on an employee’s maturity:

• Delegating The leader is still involved in decisions; however, the process and responsibility have been passed to the individual or group. The leader stays involved to monitor progress.

• Participating This is where shared decision-making with the workgroup about how a task is accomplished; the leader is providing less task direction while maintaining high relationship behavior with the group.

• Selling While the leader is still providing the direction, he or she is now using two-way communication and providing the socio-emotional support that will allow the individual or group being influenced to buy into the process.

• Telling Characterized by one-way communication in which the leader defines the roles of the individual or group and provides the what, how, why, when, and where to do the task.

Behavioral Leadership Theory

This situational leadership model developed originally in 1964 by Robert R. Blake and Jane Mouton,¹⁵ and updated by them, is a managerial grid model that identifies five different leadership styles based on the concern for people and the concern for production. Figure 8-12 illustrates the Blake-Mouton Behavioral Leadership theory and the resulting leadership styles.

Figure 8-12 Blake-Mouton Behavioral Leadership Theory

NOTE The ideal position is a nine on production and nine on people.

• Impoverished style (1,1): Evade and elude. In this style, managers have low concern for both people and production. Managers use this style to preserve job and job seniority, protecting themselves by avoiding getting into trouble. The main concern for the manager is not to be held responsible for any mistakes, which results in less innovative decisions.

• Country club style (1,9): Yield and comply. This style has a high concern for people and a low concern for production. Managers using this style pay much attention to the security and comfort of the employees, in hopes that this will increase performance. The resulting atmosphere is usually friendly, but not necessarily very productive.

• Produce or perish style (9,1): Control and dominate. With a high concern for production, and a low concern for people, managers using this style find employee needs unimportant; they provide their employees with money and expect performance in return. Managers using this style also pressure their employees through rules and punishments to achieve the company goals. This style is often used in cases of crisis management.

• Middle-of-the-road style (5,5): Balance and compromise. Managers using this style try to balance between company goals and workers’ needs. By giving some concern to both people and production, managers who use this style hope to achieve suitable performance but doing so gives away a bit of each concern so that neither production nor people needs are met.

• Team style (9,9): Contribute and commit. In this style, high concern is paid both to people and production. Managers choosing to use this style encourage teamwork and commitment among employees. This method relies heavily on making employees feel like they’re constructive parts of the company.

• The opportunistic style: Exploit and manipulate. Individuals using this style, which was added to the grid theory before 1999, do not have a fixed location on the grid. They adopt whichever behavior offers the greatest personal benefit.

• The paternalistic style: Prescribe and guide. This style was added to the grid theory before 1999. Managers using this style praise and support, but discourage challenges to their thinking.

Trait Theories

The theory of trait leadership was developed from early leadership research, which focused primarily on finding a group of heritable attributes that differentiated leaders from non-leaders. Basically, it asserted that leaders were born and not made, and the focus was on personal characteristics and attributes that included mental and physical abilities. Although this perspective has been criticized immensely over the past century, scholars still continue to study the effects of personality traits on leader effectiveness. Past research has demonstrated that successful leaders differ from other people and possess certain core personality traits that significantly contribute to their success. It has been called the “great person” leadership theory with its assumption that leaders are different from the average person. The five traits identified are:

• Intelligence

• Dominance

• Self-confidence

• High levels of energy and vitality

• Task or technical relevance knowledge

More current research has failed to identify one set of traits that always differentiates a leader.

Contingency Theories

The most popular situational contingency theory was developed by Fred Fiedler.¹⁶ The Fiedler Contingency Theory holds that group effectiveness depends on an appropriate match between a leader’s style (essentially a trait measure) and the demands of the situation. Fiedler considers situational control the extent to which a leader can determine what their group is going to do to be the primary contingency factor in determining the effectiveness of leader behavior.

Fiedler’s contingency model is a dynamic model where the personal characteristics and motivation of the leader are said to interact with the current situation that the group faces. Thus, the contingency model marks a shift away from the tendency to attribute leadership effectiveness to personality alone.

Fiedler asserts that there are three factors determining the favorableness of the environment for the leader:

• Leader-member relations The degrees of trust, confidence, and respect that employees have in their leader

• Task structure The extent to which the tasks the employees are engaged in are defined (clear or ambiguous, structured or unstructured)

• Position power The degree of power and influence the leader has over their subordinates

Changing one of the three factors is a more effective route rather than trying to change the leadership’s trait.

Leadership Concepts

In their book The Leadership Challenge,¹⁷ authors James Kouzes and Barry Posner suggest that there are attributes that go beyond personality traits as a predisposition to lead. They assert that the following leadership practices are common to successful leaders:

• Challenge Challenging the status quo and seeing a bigger need for change. Not accepting mediocrity or complacency. This practice leads to innovation.

• Inspire Leaders need to be persuasive in getting others to buy in to a vision and create an engaged workgroup toward that vision, inspiring people to a common goal, a bigger vision, and especially to change when it is needed.

• Enable Empowering others to do their best, providing the resources to do their best work, and forming a collaboration where everyone is aligned with the desired end result (the vision).

• Modeling Demonstrating as an example the expectations they desire from others. Their values and behavior must walk-the-talk as they lead by example.

• Encourage Leaders must hit the core sweet spot of those they lead” the heart and soul of people. Encourage others toward achievements, recognizing their effort and accomplishments, and celebrating milestones.

The biggest difference between managers and leaders is the way they motivate the people who work or follow them. Many management jobs require that you be both leader and manager, and thus people who are successful in such jobs display a combination of skills needed for both roles. True leaders may have management jobs, but they realize that you must influence people and lead by heart, especially if you want your employees to follow you down a difficult path. Table 8-1 provides a sense of the differences between being a leader and being a manager. This is an illustrative characterization, and there is a whole spectrum between either end of these scales.

Table 8-1 Leaders Versus Managers

Transformational and Transactional Leadership

Leadership can be either transformational or transactional in nature. A transformational leadership approach is one that stimulates and inspires people to work together toward achieving a common goal. Transformational leaders are charismatic (which instills pride, respect, and trust in the leader’s sense of mission and vision); inspirational, with the communication skills necessary to gain engagement; stimulating, where the promotion of intelligence and challenge are at play; and attentive to individual needs, giving personal attention in manners of coaching or mentoring.

Transactional leadership has characteristics associated with contingent reward, where effort is rewarded via accomplishment; management by exception, in which corrective action is taken when standards are not met or protocol is broken; and laissez faire, in which responsibility is abdicated and decision-making is delayed or avoided.

Transactional leadership has been widely used and the norm historically for decades; transformational leadership has been proven to improve productivity and morale in the long run. A blend of both transactional and transformational leadership is typically warranted and the most effective.

Fast-Track Development Programs

Fast-track development programs were originally designed for the development of future management talent. For example, in the profession of HR, a female employee who has worked for the organization and completed her college degree may be enrolled into a fast-track development program that has her fulfill roles for 18 months each in compensation, recruitment, benefits, and training in order to move her into the role of assistant director of HR within five years. In turn, this helps the organization with its plan to have more women in management. Fast-track programs today are helpful with retention of high-potential employees, such as top-of-class college recruits.

Organizational Development Initiatives

OD, as organizational development is called, is the process or function of structured analysis and planning for strategic organizational accomplishment. It involves design of organizations and strategic application of resources (for example, human resources, financial resources, supply and service resources) that result in the organizational ability to accomplish its mission through greater effectiveness and efficiency.

Theories and Applications

The University of Pennsylvania describes organizational development theory as involving three things:¹⁸

• Organizational climate The personality of the organization. It embraces attitudes and beliefs about organizational practices, employee satisfaction, stress factors, and other elements.

• Organizational culture Deeply seated norms, values, and behaviors, including elements of assumption, values, behavioral norms, behavioral patterns, and artifacts.

• Organizational strategies Design and implementation of change, including the key steps of diagnosis, action planning, intervention, and evaluation.

Diversity Initiatives

Successful organizational design generally includes consideration for diversity of its workforce. Diversity includes a variety of representation from groups based on gender, race, ethnicity, sexual orientation, cultural background, religious beliefs, economic experiences, educational background, and more. Programs that are designed to increase the diversity of an organization’s workforce are often organizational development efforts, whether labeled as such or not. Diversity is built upon the foundation of equal employment opportunity and affirmative action programs. Equal employment opportunity requires that anyone who is qualified for an employment opportunity should be considered for that opportunity. Affirmative action programs represent outreach and recruiting efforts to entice people into candidate pools who may be in groups that are currently underrepresented in the organizational workforce. Diversity programs go beyond legal requirements into strategic staffing initiatives to expand the mix of people and their backgrounds that are represented in the workforce.

Programs for Organizational and Employees’ Changing Needs

Developing and implementing change programs should follow the articulation of specific needs. If efficiencies can be improved through implementing new technologies (for example, use of robots on the automobile assembly line to perform routine repetitive actions), plans can be made to implement that change.

Normally, implementation plans should involve these steps:

1. Documentation of goals and specific actions required to achieve them.

2. Meetings with employees to discuss the changes and vision that require those changes.

3. Solicitation of employee support and participation in the change process.

4. Measurement of the results.

Organizational changes should always be consistent with the employer’s strategic plan. Changes should represent means to achieve missions or goals. There should always be a link between the change and the organizational strategy.

Measuring Results, Establishing Metrics

Measurement is critical. Without measuring the accomplishments, there is no way to know if the stated goals have been realized. Measurements generally fall into one of two categories discussed in the following sections.

Objective Measurements

When measurements involve impartial assessment of a result, they are said to be objective. Counting items, identifying distances or temperatures, and weighing items are all examples of objective measurements. Rates (miles per hour, units per day) and ratios (error rates or failure rates) also qualify as objective measurements. These types of measurements are usually fact-based and not dependent upon the individuals doing the measuring.

Subjective Measurements

When measurements involve opinion or perceptions they are said to be subjective. Just because job performance may be difficult to evaluate doesn’t mean it cannot be measured. Attorneys, teachers, HR managers, and physicians have jobs that depend on both objective and subjective measurements. Beyond the number of trials won or the number of participants passing the standardized tests, there are behaviors that should also be measured in some way. Leadership, decision making, communication, and inner work standards are all skills/behaviors that are imprecise.

Subjective measurements can be quantified by using scales representing amounts of the behavior. Usually, such efforts are best when compared with a “standard” or “benchmark” that represents the desired behavior. Watching someone who is a successful manager demonstrate leadership skills can provide a reference for comparison of leadership demonstrated by other people. It can be described in a narrative or on a scale from “Very Little” to “Excessive.” Knowing where the benchmark falls on the scale is critical. Everyone else should be compared to that benchmark, not one another.

If only one person is applying subjective measurements, all of the results will likely be consistently generated from the same opinion or expectation base. When more than one person is involved in measuring using subjective means, the difference between the evaluators can become problematic. That is why using a standard or benchmark is recommended so results can be more closely controlled from one evaluator to another. Every evaluator can make adjustments based on the benchmark.

Global Issues and Considerations

There are key issues to be aware of in global organizations that apply to the topics discussed in this chapter. Things become more complex due to cultural and language barriers along with geographical and time zone differences. Managing the diverse global workplaces becomes complicated with laws, regulations, and practices differing from country to country.

Cultural Issues

There are two cultural constructs that have a great influence on communication and training/development activities: power distance and high-context/low-context culture. Dr. Geert Hofstede, well known for his pioneering research of cross-cultural groups in organizations, conducted a study of how workplace values were influenced by culture. He developed a model that identifies five primary dimensions to differentiate cultures. The five dimensions are: power distance, individualism, uncertainty avoidance, masculinity, and long-term orientation.

Power distance is the extent to which less-powerful members of organizations expect and accept that power is distributed unequally. In high power distance organizations, the less powerful employee accepts autocratic structures.

Individualism refers to the extent to which people are expected to stand up for themselves. With high individualism, individual’s rights are most important.

Uncertainty avoidance is the extent to which members of a society cope with anxiety by minimizing uncertainty. High uncertainty avoidance cultures like structure and rules.

Masculinity also includes femininity and refers to the value placed on male or female values from a Western culture perspective. Feminine cultures place more value on relationships and harmony, wherein masculine cultures value competitiveness and assertiveness.

Long-term orientation is the degree to which the society embraces long-term devotion to traditional values. High long-term orientation has a respect for loyalty commitments and work ethic is strong.¹⁹

Low-context/High-context Culture

Low-context culture and the contrasting high-context culture are terms presented by Edward T. Hall in his 1976 book Beyond Culture that categorize the differences in communication styles.²⁰

Low-context refers to cultures where people will have many connections but of shorter duration or for some specific reason. Cultural beliefs may need to be spelled out explicitly so that newcomers into the cultural environment know what is acceptable, especially with behaviors.

High-context refers to cultures where people have close connections over a long period of time. These members of the culture know what to do and what to think from years of association and interaction with each other. High-context is more common in Eastern cultures.

Training and development, talent management, developing leaders, and of course performance management may need to vary depending on whether a culture that the organization is doing business in is consider low or high context.

Chapter Review

Human Resource Development is the integrated use of training, organizational development, and career development efforts to improve individual, group, and organizational effectiveness. This HRCI functional area focuses on the behavior, skills, and competencies for employees to further the organization’s goals. HRD activities need to align and support the organization’s strategic goals and objectives, and it is the HR professional’s responsibility to develop, evaluate, and measure the direct effectiveness to ensure that they are in alignment. By providing input in the development, and fully understanding the organization’s strategic plan, they can then develop, select, and implement human resource development programs and activities that provide the organization’s workforce with the necessary skills and competencies to meet the current and future organizational job demands.

HRD has a strong role to play in helping employees acquire skills and knowledge, and in assisting with the changes and outside influences through the development of training and development programs, change management, performance management, employee career planning, and job enhancement.

Questions

1. Organizations with several employees in technical and scientific careers can most effectively impact retention by providing:

A. Dual-career ladders

B. An employee wellness program

C. A validated succession planning program

D. Various telecommuting options

2. What is the name for the evaluation error to appraise most recent negative behavior or effort rather than a review of the entire appraisal period?

A. Nonverbal bias

B. Last function relay

C. Recency

D. Horn effect

3. According to Maslow’s hierarchy, which needs must be met first?

A. Social needs

B. Security/safety needs

C. Self-actualization needs

D. Belonging/loving needs

4. Leslie is moved into a new supervisory position in the creative services department. She intends to set a good example for her subordinates. She recognizes that there are already strong creative partnerships within the department, so she tries to foster even more cooperation. What style of leadership is Leslie practicing?

A. Authoritarian leadership

B. Team style

C. Democratic leadership

D. Collaborative leadership

5. ADDIE is an instructional design tool. What is not a part of ADDIE?

A. Delivery

B. Implementation

C. Design

D. Development

6. What are the four styles of leadership identified by the Hersey-Blanchard theory?

A. Telling, selling, participating, delegating

B. Showing, growing, sowing, bestowing

C. Managing, administrating, inspiring, following

D. Giving, taking, making, doing

7. The Tasty Good corporation downsized due to intense global competition and modified its strategic business plan for the year. The most important task that the HR department’s training and development function needs to do to support the change is to:

A. Cost-justify training

B. Work with employees on accepting the change

C. Evaluate the effectiveness of all training programs

D. Link training and development to the new strategic plan

8. Adult learners in comparison to child learners have which of the following characteristics?

A. Resistance to change

B. Inflexibility

C. Focus on real-world issues

D. Directed by others

9. One of the most important competencies of an HR professional is:

A. Skilled project manager

B. A masterful change agent

C. Excellent time management skills

D. Listening

10. When an HR intervention has a focus on emotional intelligence (EQ) the goal is to:

A. Heighten emotions

B. Always improve coworker relationships

C. Cause EQ rating to align with IQ rating

D. Improve or increase an individual’s interactions and behaviors

11. Training and development manager Joey was requested by the operations director to develop a team-building program that would focus on blending the values of Gen X with the Baby Boomers. Joey does not possess the knowledge of generational issues for team building. A justification Joey can use to sell his boss on purchasing an already existing team building training program from a third-party consultant is:

A. Outside expertise will generate higher credibility from the Gen X participants because Joey is from the Baby Boomer generation.

B. The time required to develop a training program in-house by Joey would take too long.

C. There are many vendors that offer this kind of specific training.

D. A Gen X training facilitator would be better to deliver this type of training program.

12. What performance evaluation method increases employee engagement and dialogue the most?

A. Self-assessment evaluation

B. Behaviorally anchored rating scale method (BARS)

C. A forced-choice method

D. Paired comparison method

13. Brianna is the responsible HR recruiter for handling exit interviews. She has noticed that the number of accounting personnel leaving the finance division who claim not to have other jobs to go to and are too young to retire has increased in numbers over the last 18 months. To help stop the exodus and learn the root of the reason behind the increased level of resignations, Brianna should:

A. Ask their reference checking service to determine where the former employees are working

B. Hold a brown bag lunch with the finance employees to talk up the value of the benefits the company offers

C. Design focus-group questions and invite select finance employees to a focus group meeting with a confidential input agreement

D. Send out an employee survey in the finance department to ask what employees think about the recent resignations

14. Which of the following is not an example of a narrative evaluation method?

A. Behaviorally anchored rating (BARS)

B. Forced distribution

C. Management by objectives (MBO)

D. Essay

15. A large technology company has identified a group of key managers in various departments who were hired with employment contracts that included large equity options. The company went public two years ago and continues to see a steady increase in stock value. There is a realization that many of these managers may retire when they are eligible to exercise their stock options in three more years. What OD activity should HR be focused on related to this circumstance?

A. Review the organization’s retirement plan and begin counseling discussions

B. Expand the vacation policy for this group of managers

C. Design a succession plan and identify high potential employees

D. Hire executive coaches to help this group of management with work/life balance

16. Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory is based on which two categories of needs?

A. Psychological and basic needs

B. Motivational and security needs

C. Extrinsic and intrinsic needs

D. Safety and self-esteem needs

17. What type of team involves a group that is given general direction to resolve an issue or solve a problem?

A. Self-directed team

B. Task force

C. Project team

D. Work team

18. Kiara has been working at her company for close to 18 years out of her 25 years as a programmer. What stage would probably best describe Kiara’s career development:

A. Late-career

B. Mid-career crisis

C. Occupational preparation

D. Mid-career

19. Mark and Gwen are coworkers whose cubicles are located in a 12 × 10 enclosed room. Their manager is unable to resolve a conflict that they are having related to the temperature in the room and the matter has escalated to HR. Which would be the best tactic to use in resolving their conflict?

A. Use the seniority system; the person with the most seniority gets to decide on the temperature.

B. Provide a portable fan for the cubicle and desk of the person who is too warm.

C. Facilitate a conversation with the two of them in the same room to try and find common agreements.

D. Create a schedule of telecommuting so that they are not in the same office at the same time.

20. Which is not one of the leadership practices that Kouzes and Posner identify for effective leadership?

A. Enable

B. Persuade

C. Model

D. Encourage

21. In a low-context culture, which is true?

A. Tasks are needed to be spelled out explicitly.

B. Behavior are needed to be spelled out explicitly.

C. People know how to behave.

D. People have connections over long periods of time.

22. Which is not one of the four quality absolutes in Philip Crosby’s TQM philosophy?

A. Appraisal of quality

B. Zero defects

C. Cost of nonconformance

D. Definition of quality

23. Which Quality Control tool resembles a fishbone?

A. Scatter diagram

B. Histogram

C. Cause-and-effect diagram

D. Process-flow chart

24. You have observed that your employee Matthew consistently has a notebook in hand and is taking notes in the training sessions. Which learning style is Matthew exhibiting?

A. Visual

B. Auditory

C. Kinesthetic

D. Tactile

25. Which learning curve is the most common?

A. Increasing returns

B. S-shaped curve

C. Decreasing returns

D. Plateau curve

Answers

1. A. Dual-career ladders provide opportunities for a parallel occupational track that recognizes and rewards different skill sets. This allows organizations to retain their technical and professional employees at a similar rate as their managerial track employees.

2. C. Recency is an error that occurs when an appraiser uses a recent occurrence, allowing it to discounts all other performances during the review period.

3. B. Safety and security needs must be met first before moving up the pyramid of hierarchal needs according to Maslow’s theory.

4. B. Team style of leadership that encourages teamwork and commitment among employees.

5. A. ADDIE is an instructional design model that follows phases of assessment, design, development, implementation, and evaluation.

6. A. The Hersey-Blanchard Situational Leadership Model has four tasks based on an employee’s maturity—delegating, participating, selling, and telling.

7. D. Linking training and development activities to the new strategic plan is the first step to ensure that activities and resources are aligned with the organization’s new initiatives.

8. C. As people mature, they shift in their motivation for learning. Real-world examples and emphasis on how the training is going to be immediately applied is most helpful.

9. B. Although all those skills listed are important to the profession, being a masterful change agent is most important because change agents serve as a catalyst in helping others work through and accept change, along with implementing processes and programs that align with the change.

10. D. Emotional intelligence (EQ) interventions involve skill and coaching or mentoring to cause a person’s interactions to improve by changing an ineffective behavior.

11. B. Sometimes it is more cost and time effective to utilize an already developed training program that is available from a third-party vendor.

12. A. More organizations are having their employees complete a self-assessment on their performance and submit it prior to their evaluation interview meeting. This affords an opportunity for the employee to be more engaged with setting their job goals for the next review period and focuses discussions on their career development in the organization.

13. C. A focus group provides an ability to have two-way dialogue for clarity and probing purposes, and Brianna needs to solicit confidential information in a trusted environment that allows the employees to express collective concerns about conditions.

14. B. Forced distribution is what is known as the bell curve, which assumes that a group of individuals will fall within a rating scale that includes a percentage meeting standards, a predictable group not meeting standards, and also a group exceeding standards.

15. C. A succession plan is a key component for business success and should be part of every organization’s human resources development program to be sure that there is no gap in knowledge that cripples an organization due to the departure of key human capital.

16. C. Hygiene factors are considered extrinsic and associated with job security, pay, working conditions, and relationships, whereas motivational factors are considered intrinsic, associated with recognition, achievement, and personal growth—related events in the job.

17. A. Self-directed teams as a group select their own leadership and identify their own direction, holding themselves accountable for the intended accomplishments.

18. D. Mid-career is a phase when evaluation of career objectives occurs. It is too soon for retirement but a time of life when work/life family issues are more of a factor and can shift a person’s motivations about work.

19. C. Any and all small agreements assist with the stages of conflict resolution. Agreeing on the problem and on some small changes gives a feeling of compromise to both parties so you can begin the process of looking at all possible acceptable solutions.

20. The five leadership practices Kouzes and Posner identify in The Leadership Challenge are: challenge, inspire, enable, model, and encourage.

21. B. In low-context cultures, people need to have work behavior expectations spelled out so that they know how to behave and what is expected of them.

22. A. Crosby’s TQM included a prevention system rather than an appraisal system of quality.

23. C. Cause-and-effect diagram which is used to map out all the factors that are thought to affect a problem.

24. A. Matthew is a visual learner. Visual learners prefer to take detailed notes in order to absorb new information.

25. C. Decreasing returns is the most common type of learning curve. It occurs when the amount of learning increases rapidly in the beginning and then the rate of learning slows.

Endnotes

1. Richard Beckhard, Organization Development: Strategies and Models (Addison-Wesley, 1969).

2. Peter Senge, The Fifth Discipline, Revised and Updated edition (New York: Doubleday, 2006).

3. Kurt Lewin, “Frontiers in Group Dynamics: Concept, Method and Reality in Social Science; Social Equilibria and Social Change,” Human Relations Journal (June 1947), http://hum.sagepub.com/content/1/1/5.

4. University of Tennessee, http://edtech2.tennessee.edu/projects/bobannon/in_strategies.html, accessed on July 25, 2014.

5. Benjamin Bloom, Engelhart, M. D. Furst, E. J. Hill, W. H. Krathwohl, D. R. Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: The Classification of Educational Goals. Handbook I: Cognitive Domain (New York: David McKay Company, 1956).

6. Abraham Maslow, “A Theory of Human Motivation,” Psychological Review, 50, 370–96, 1943.

7. Don Kirkpatrick: The Father of the Four Levels (Biographical article from Chief Learning Officer Magazine, November 2009).

8. SHRM, Talent Management Future of the U.S. Labor Pool Survey Report, 2013, www.shrm.org/india/hr-topics-and-strategy/strategic-hrm/talent-development-strategy.

9. Peter Drucker, The Practice of Management (New York: HarperBusiness, 2010).

10. W. Edwards Deming, The New Economics for Industry, Government, and Education (Boston: MIT Press, 1993), p. 132.

11. Joseph Juran, Quality Control Handbook (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1951).

12. “Philip Crosby, 75, Developer of the Zero-Defects Concept.” The New York Times, 2001.

13. Marshall Goldsmith et al. Global Leadership (Upper Saddle River, NJ: FT Press, 2003).

14. Paul Hersey and Ken Blanchard, Management of Organizational Behavior (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2012).

15. Robert Blake and Jane Mouton, The Managerial Grid (Houston, TX: Gulf Publishing, 1985).

16. Fred Fiedler, A Theory of Leadership Effectiveness (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1967).

17. James M. Kouzes and Barry Z. Posner, The Leadership Challenge (Hoboken, NJ: Jossey-Bass, 2012).

18. University of Pennsylvania, www.med.upenn.edu/hbhe4/part4-ch15-organizational-development-theory.shtml, accessed on July 25, 2014.

19. Geert Hofstede, Culture’s Consequences: Comparing Values, Behaviors, Institutions, and Organizations across Nations (2nd ed.) (Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2001).

20. Edward T. Hall, Beyond Culture (New York: Anchor Books, 1976).