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CULTURAL VALUES AND DIVERSITY
Cultural diversity is what gives our world its richness and beauty. The differences in values that occur in different cultures translate into a wide array of perceptions on what truly matters within the world.
For educators, the ability to anticipate how lesson material and communicative messages need to be altered to suit diversity within the classroom becomes a critical skill. A multicultural audience can present one of the biggest hidden obstacles for communication, as differences in cultural values widen, the gaps between a message's intention and its impact widen with cultural gaps.
This chapter provides an overview on aspects of cultural diversity that can affect classroom dynamics. As educators develop greater cultural sensitivity, they become more likely to acknowledge the possibility of cultural gaps arising in their classroom, and take proactive steps to ensure that all students are effectively supported.
TOUCHING ON TERMINOLOGY
The words “culture,” “customs,” and “values” are often used interchangeably, but they are all components of a bigger picture.
Essentially, a custom is a tradition that demonstrates a community's cultural values. On the other hand, values run deeper than what is observed on the surface. Values can be understood and put together by observing various customs passed down over several generations. For example, the Korean custom of celebrating an infant's first birthday, known as doljanchi, involves an elaborate set of traditional practices, including providing gold rings as gifts and setting out highly symbolic table decorations. The highlight of the celebration is the doljabi, a game where items such as books, stethoscopes, coins, or balls are laid out to represent different passions and future careers. The infant “chooses” one of the items while the assembled partygoers cheer, providing a fun and happy memory for all.
The customs involved in the doljanchi are indicative of a deep-set cultural value placed on family. This value has its roots in Confucian practices, and was also shaped by the harsh reality of life in Korea before the country developed modern healthcare. In the 1800s, the infant mortality rate in Korea was over 50%. Even in the 1950s, one out of every four children on the Korean peninsula died before reaching their first birthday. This context helped to develop the strong cultural value placed on making sacrifices to ensure the survival and prosperity of children, and led to the custom of celebrating the completion of an infant's first year, even in the most humble households.
Culture can thus be defined as a community's guiding values and beliefs. These values are inculcated through the customary rituals that can be seen throughout a society. Individuals naturally learn cultural values through repeated exposure to traditional customs, strengthening their relationships and ensuring their recognition by other members of the community.
Diversity is often brought up as a value when speaking about multicultural contexts. Diversity goes beyond age and race and refers to a wide range of demographic variables. The common areas of diversity include gender, sexuality, religion, ethnicity, race, nationality, age, education, socioeconomic background, skills, and culture. Cultural diversity is the coexistence of diverse beliefs, art, knowledge, norms, abilities, religion, languages, and customs.
FAMILY DIVERSITY
Every culture has its own definition of what constitutes the “ideal” family, and deviations from that standard are considered dysfunctional according to their distance from the ideal. There are of course a wide range of dimensions and characteristics in which families differ within and across cultures, and different family groupings can function effectively. Family diversity can be seen as the variations that exist along demographic and structural dimensions as well as differences in the communicative processes within the family itself.
There are five key elements of family diversity:1
- Cultural diversity creates differences in the traditions and lifestyles of families with different religious beliefs and ethnic roots.
- Organizational diversity is the variance in household types, family structures, kinship patterns, and even the division of labor within a household.
- Life-cycle diversity in family diversity is the differences in family life between couples with children and families that don't have children.
- Class diversity as an element of family diversity creates differences in income, for instance, between the middle-income and working-class families.
- Cohort diversity as an element of family diversity comes across as families passing through different stages of the family life cycle.
FAMILY MAKEUP
Immigrant families comprise one or more members who have moved from another country. Some family members may decide to immigrate, come and go, stay in the sending country, or go back to their country temporarily. One major defining feature of the immigrant family is the relatively low level of assimilation to the “new country,” particularly among adult generations. These older members of the family are unwilling or unable to let go of their home culture, and thus may be more emphatic about the maintenance of particular customs, rituals, and traditions.
International families, meanwhile, often comprise a child or children and/or one or both parents to be a national of a country other than the one they live in. It could also be a family who is living in a country other than their country of origin. An international family may also include a child who is away from their country of origin or spouses holding assets in a foreign country. International families may also comprise a family residing in their country of origin but having one member located overseas, usually the father, to earn the money to support the child and mother. Some of these families don't have permanent resident or citizenship status, which is what families need to stay long term. Culturally, an international family and an immigrant family from the same country may have different values. There are also, of course, blended cultural families, which comprise couples or children from other ethnic groups with various lifestyles, preferences, and traditions.
CONSIDERING CULTURAL VALUES AND CORE BELIEFS
Culture is the cumulative transfer of experience, beliefs, values, knowledge, religion, and other concepts of the universe across generations, resulting in a system of knowledge about “what should be done” amongst a given group of people. This system is a cumulation of experiences and learnings and is nurtured in younger generations through interactions and patterns of behavior, commonly transmitted by artifacts and symbols. The accepted way of life of a given community or group of people is often illustrative of their cultural values.
CORE BELIEFS AND PRACTICES
These values ultimately result in an implicit “default programming” of the mind, creating a set of deeply held core beliefs about how the world works that frame all interactions and experiences. This “programming” defines values and, therefore, makes members of one cultural community readily distinguishable from other groups of people. In its most readily apparent form, our cultural encoding can be seen through variations in attenuation to stimuli in our environment.
One illustrative example of this came early in Seth's teaching career. A fellow teacher from Thailand pulled him aside one morning with a highly distraught look, noting she had an urgent matter to discuss. Thinking he'd made a major faux pas in his lesson planning or departmental responsibilities, Seth sat down over a coffee, ready to make adjustments. With a very serious expression, the Thai teacher told Seth he needed to make sure he remembered to iron his shirt every day to match the “proper appearance” expected from a teacher in Thai society.
Thus, core beliefs are the deeply held assumptions people have about how things “ought to be” for themselves, others, and the world. These beliefs are often deeply ingrained in their thinking and usually shape their behaviors and reality. Often, the ideas develop from people's childhood and through their experiences with the world around them.
These core beliefs are the roots of a group's behaviors and perceptions of the world, creating the aspects of culture that we see on the surface. Within longstanding and well-defined cultures, core beliefs are formalized into specific societal laws that define what practices are acceptable and what are banned. A group of people's beliefs about certain symbols may also be a part of their culture and used to invoke certain emotions and feelings. A ready (and controversial) example of this are the proscribed regulations around dress codes in conversative Islamic states, placing high penalties on females who do not meet the strict requirements for wearing hijab or other coverings. The difference in underlying core beliefs around these regulations can be witnessed by the innately negative reaction from many Western societies toward such rules.
CATEGORIZING CULTURAL VALUES AND CORE BELIEFS
Much of the foundational research work on cultural values was performed by the Dutch social psychologist Geert Hofstede. Toward the end of the twentieth century, Hofstede conducted comprehensive studies of how values in the workplace are influenced by culture in different nations, defining culture as “the collective programming of the mind.” In Hofstede's model,2 there are six dimensions of national culture.
Power Distance Index
This dimension determines the extent to which the society accepts inequalities and ingrained social hierarchies. The level of the index is determined by the core beliefs of less powerful members; the more who accept and expect that power is distributed unequally, the higher the index. Lower power distance within cultures can manifest in comfort in questioning authority, higher social mobility, and normalized goals for distributing resources equally.
Individualism versus Collectivism Index
This dimension focuses on the strength of the relationship between individuals to the various groups in which they belong. Highly collectivist societies are characterized by strong bonds and high loyalty toward all “in-group” members, while the bonds in more individualized societies may only extend to immediate family members. In societies with lower collectivist preferences, societal good may be given a lower priority than individual freedom of choice.
Uncertainty Avoidance Index
This dimension can be defined as the relative tolerance within a culture for ambiguity and flexibility. Societies with a higher level of uncertainty avoidance tend to be characterized by strict laws and regulations, as well as a general acceptance of the existence of one “absolute truth.” A lower degree of uncertainty avoidance can result in societies where regular changes in plans are more accepted, and alterations to governing structures can be expected to occur.
Masculinity versus Femininity Index
Hofstede's nomenclature for this index is open to criticism for the continuance of archaic relations to gender, and it may be more appropriate to consider this as a “competition versus cooperation” index. Regardless, societies with a higher degree of masculinity (as defined by Hofstede) demonstrate higher preferences for material achievement and heroism, while more feminine-oriented societies are characterized by a focus on quality of life and caring for all members of the community.
Long-Term Orientation Index
This dimension focuses on the degree to which the past dictates current and future decision-making and actions. A lower degree on this index can manifest in a higher pattern of honoring traditions and a reluctance to accept changes to societal patterns or organizational structures. Societies with higher levels of long-term orientation, meanwhile, place a strong value on pragmatic problem-solving and regular adaptations to ways of working according to the current situation.
Indulgence versus Restraint Index
This dimension determines the relative amount of freedom related to the gratification of basic needs by individuals in a society. In highly indulgent cultures, communities generally accept rationales of enjoyment and desire fulfillment by individuals for actions that may cross societal norms. In restrained cultures, these societal norms are paramount, and individual enjoyment is given a lower priority.
Hofstede's research is widely used in workplace and academic settings and provides a useful starting place for thinking about variations in cultural values and core beliefs. Different groups demonstrate these cultural dynamics at different degrees of intensity, affected by both long- and short-term contextual influences.
For instance, in some traditional Black communities in the American South, the perpetuation of racist practices during the Jim Crow and Civil Rights eras have given rise to more highly collectivist values, with group membership and loyalties extended beyond the immediate family to religious and other “in-group” members. The need for survival required the development of tighter bonds within these communities, including the powerful relationships created within Baptist church groups. Lacking the same constant threat, White American culture in the New England region of the United States, meanwhile, developed a more highly “masculine” and “heroic” culture, focusing on the accumulation of material possessions, individualism, competition, and mastery of nature.
While variations certainly exist within different groups, it is essential to note that different cultural groups can (and almost always do, as stated in Chapter 4) have some common ground for cultural values and core beliefs. The collective spiritualism within many Southern Black communities echoes the religion-based bonds within Islamic cultures, while the masculine-competition orientation of White New Englanders is matched by a similarly heroic sensibility of many Latin Americans.
FORMATION OF CULTURAL VALUES
It is important to note that culture is not genetically acquired but acquired through language and modeling. Culture is also usually encoded in the semantics and vocabulary of a language. A person acquainted with more than one language is in an excellent position to understand that emotions, norms, and concepts are not available in another. For example, the Korean expression of jung relates to a deep-seated emotional bond between people, either family members, friends, or close professional relationships, as well as to animals and even to some sentimental places. This expression does not have an immediate parallel in English, and understanding that absences of these ideas exist is a key part of developing respect for the presence of alternate ways of living.
Culture is acquired through regular and repeated exposure to a group of people's actions, judgments, and norms. As life is a learning process, many have constant opportunities to learn about our cultures. In the process of learning, people also find themselves adopting elements from cultures different from their own, especially when they have an opportunity to live in different cultural environments.
Cultural values are primarily formed through environmental adaptations, social evolution, and the influence of historical factors. Contact with other groups demonstrating alternative cultural values can have radically different impacts on a community's cultural values, with a counterreaction of strengthening existing norms or a more gradual assimilation of the values of the other group. In this evolutionary process, individuals are able to develop perceptual patterns that determine their reaction to stimuli or judgment of events, people, and objects.
Cultural values and systems are created when individuals in a community gradually learn rules that prioritize specific values. For example, the jung concept in Korea may be more tangible for youth when their bond with a childhood friend is given deep respect and priority by older generations. Culture is formed through these subtle processes as newcomers gradually understand the dynamics of their surrounding culture. They develop norms and values necessary and appropriate for survival within the surrounding cultural context, as their actions are directed or limited by the implicit rules within the surrounding community.
ROLE OF CULTURAL VALUES
It is worth noting that cultural diversity is not ethnic diversity. Ethnicity is a social construct, and ethnic groups are individuals who are related to each other by virtue of characteristics such as language, religion, and culture.
Culture can be considered the vein of the society through which life flows. Shared cultural values bind people together and make them united and strong. Culture manifests itself as people's practices, religion, language, lifestyle, and even food. As people learn about a culture and develop an understanding of it, aspects of their characters, perceptions, and personalities are created in the process and inform people on how best to respond to situations. For example, the decisions about prioritizing one's individual desire for what to eat for dinner over the wishes of others in one's family may be governed by the normalized level of indulgence within one's culture.
Being able to acculturate into a culture can be essential as it allows people to become part of a community and exist within it harmoniously. These values give future generations an opportunity to understand ideologies and practices and their importance in guiding their life within a society. Through the transmission and evolution of cultural values, new generations are able to adopt the ideals of their society and practice behaviors that allow them to survive in a community.
WHAT DOES THE EXISTENCE OF CULTURAL GAPS MEAN FOR EDUCATION?
Educators who demonstrate and model respect for the process of learning about cultural values provide space for students to build their self-identity, self-esteem, enhance their resilience, and develop their thinking skills. As educators manage behaviors in the classroom, they must keep in mind the reality of a gap in cultural values and the role it plays in students’ behaviors.
While the United States is often considered to be a paragon of multiculturalism, the appropriate behavior, practices, and cultural values often put an emphasis on traditional “White” cultural norms, which then manifest in school policies, behavioral expectations in the learning environments, communication, and even the engagement of family. This default gap can result in disparities in the expectations of diverse students from teachers and the learners’ worldview and can negatively impact the success of students from different cultures.
One telling example of this from Marina's experience came from a consultancy with a New England school with a substantial Chinese student population. The school was experiencing what was (in their view) a highly troubling series of episodes of plagiarism and “work-sharing” amongst the Chinese students. Despite numerous punitive measures, the students continued to divide and collaborate on assignments, causing great consternation within the faculty. During the intervention session with the students, Marina worked with the students to understand themselves; eventually, besides understanding the ethical implications separate from the cultural value, the student actions were still related to their core belief of collectivism, and a difference of perception of “individual work” as related to regular school assignments designed for learning. By determining the root cause of the behavior, the school was able to “meet the students where they were” and guide them to better understand some of the more confusing parts of academic honesty that were seen differently.
In a related example, at some universities in Korea, a common expectation for students preparing a research paper a few years ago was to collect as much relevant information on the scope of the topic as possible. The work would show the hard work the students put in to appreciate and respect the opinions of the scholars on the topic. This would not be a common assignment by professors in the United States. Students studying in the United States after having such assignments may have a harder time in writing critical analytical research papers and meeting the expectations of the professors at an American university.
IDENTIFYING CULTURAL GAPS
It is crucial for both educators and learners to acknowledge the possibility of cultural gaps in the classroom. They also need to be aware that there is a likelihood of problems arising. There is a need for both learners and educators to take a more thoughtful approach and for understanding toward culturally diverse students.
Through this, they will ensure students with different backgrounds and needs succeed in the school environment. It also creates a culture of acceptance that allows learners to thrive in the diverse world. Diversity in the classroom will increase constantly, and educators need to prepare the environment for the upcoming dynamics.
Identifying the cultural gaps will aid education institutions and teachers in making the curriculum and the classroom environment attain the cultural diversity of the society we exist in. Learners can then identify strategies like creating cultural awareness in the classroom by understanding individual students, incorporating cultural diversity in the lesson plans, and practicing sensitivity to cultures. This allows them to give culturally diverse learners the freedom and flexibility they need and be responsible educators in doing so. If institutions are actively recruiting international students or appreciate diversity in classrooms, then we must be responsible in identifying the gaps and providing tools and resources for all the stakeholders, the members of the village.
SUMMARY
As great cultural diversity exists among people that results in differences in perceptions, behaviors, reactions to situations, and practices, it is essential to honor diversity to foster excellent communication, coexistence, practical learning, and behavior development.
One of the most significant challenges faced in the classroom is the ability to communicate to a multicultural audience. When teachers identify and anticipate gaps in cultural values, they will often be able to foster stronger conversations with parents. It is vital to identify them and create necessary mitigation steps before challenges that may affect learning.
Some of the differences in cultural perspectives that educators need to be on the lookout for include beliefs around relationships with the community, respect for authority figures, eye contact, and even personal space. Being intentional in identifying these differences can foster cultural sensitivity and awareness. This way, you will ensure significant aspects of learners’ identities are not neglected during the learning process.
INTERACTIVE SELF-PRACTICE EXERCISES
- Identify four common types of cultural diversity that exist in your classroom.
- Describe two techniques to foster cultural sensitivity and awareness in the classroom that you can utilize immediately.
EFFECTIVE CONVERSATIONAL POINTS
- With a colleague, discuss how cultural disparities show up in your school. Have a conversation that will motivate a deeper dive into exploring how cultural gaps manifest in the classroom. This can manifest in the ways students learn or behave. Explore how the gaps impact interactions between teachers and parents and how the interactions can be more effective.
- Continue the conversation to investigate what you might do to unlearn practices that play down the diversity in multicultural learning, thinking, practices, and values. How would this affect your interactions with the parents? Would you do something differently?
- Here, educators can explore opportunities also to recruit and create a space for culturally diverse educators to represent different groups in the classroom. Educators can also take the initiative to know their students better and, therefore, speak more knowledgeably with their parents.
- Educators also can create diversity in their lesson plans and do away with teaching practices that do not acknowledge the reality of cultural diversity. This also can provide opportunities to tap into the strengths and talents of multicultural students and develop them and have tangible culturally relevant student work that can be highlighted when talking with parents.
NOTES
- 1. Van Eeden-Moorefield, B. and Demo, D.H. (2007). Family diversity. In: Blackwell Encyclopedia of Sociology (ed. G. Ritzer). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Blackwell.
- 2. Hoefstede, G. (2003). Culture's Consequences: Comparing Values, Behaviors, Institutions and Organizations Across Nations, Second Edition. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.