Appendix A

A Lexicon of Human Performance Improvement Terms

 

Action procedure: A sequence of steps that leads to the completion of a task.

Actuals: What a target population currently knows and does. Used when performing a needs assessment or frontend analysis. Actuals, as a term, is often replaced by current state.

Analysis procedure: A systematically organized sequence of steps that leads to the breaking down of an issue, case, situation, task, or object into its constituent parts.

Aptitudes: General or specific capabilities of the learners/performers. In an instructional design context, subject-matter competence (for example, basic math skills, Level II systems administration, or certification plus a minimum of three years' experience) is often included as part of aptitudes. The term aptitudes is also used for ability to perform.

Assessment certification: The process of providing clear evidence of an individual's competence in specific job skill areas through the use of validated verification procedures.

Attitudes: Sustained feelings toward the required learning or performance, specific instructional methods/media, and/or the learning/performance context, or toward training in general.

Audit trail: A documented record of all steps and activities undertaken to create and implement a learning or performance intervention. It fulfils two purposes: creates a running example for others to consult, and documents the development of the intervention in case of legal challenge after implementation.

Automaticity (or automated procedure): Procedure that consumes none or very few cognitive mental resources. Automated procedures operate so fast that a person is literally unaware that the procedure has been used. In effective learning, new behaviors are reproduced to the point of automaticity (unthinking accurate action). The individual (for example, a hockey player, an actor, or an auctioneer) generally lacks conscious control over the procedure and cannot verbalize or explain exactly what or why something is being done.

Behavior: Something a person does that involves an action, usually in response to some external or internal stimulation.

Behavior modeling: Learners acquire new behaviors first by observing live or televised models displaying ideal behaviors and then by rehearsing the behaviors they've seen. Learners receive information on their behavior, generally through structured feedback (via observation checklists, video recording and playback). This cycle is repeated as the model is faded out until learners have mastered the behavior.

Blended solutions: Intelligent intervention combinations, seamlessly integrated to produce desired learning and performance outcomes. Blended solutions combine elements from various intervention strategies into a single, integrated package. Often a blended solution will incorporate elements from traditional instructor-centric strategies with one or more technology-based strategies such as e-learning or performance support tools plus a feedback system, incentives, and other environmental or motivational interventions.

Case study: Learners receive information about a situation or case either orally, through written or mediated materials, or a combination of these. Individually or in teams, learners examine the facts and incidents of a case, critically analyze those facts, and develop solutions. Case studies work best when several are used within a program. Cases may be close-ended (have only one best solution) or open-ended (have any number of best solutions as long as they are well supported or require group consensus for resolution).

Causes: Reasons for lack of optimal (desired) performance.

Checklist: An instrument for physically checking off the presence/absence of items. In a learning and performance context, checklists frequently are used to observe behavior and accomplishments. Checklists also can be used for tracking the frequency of behaviors.

Classroom instruction: Instructor-led, group-based learning. It may take the form of a school-type classroom or teaching laboratory. The term is usually associated with “live,” face-to-face instruction, but also can be applied to interactive distance learning.

Client: Someone who requests an intervention; someone we serve professionally; someone who receives training or performance support from the workforce learning and performance group to achieve valued results from workers.

Competency: An ability that is usually required for a job. This is in contrast to a skill, which is simply an ability to do something and which may take many forms (psychomotor, verbal, artistic, analytical). To define competency requirements, you analyze a job; to decide if a person's skills match the competency requirements, you analyze the person. Competencies should not be confused with characteristics—those traits that people exhibit as part of “who they are.” In the work setting, it is almost impossible to alter a person's characteristics. We often hire for characteristics and train for competencies.

Context analysis: Analysis of the setting and conditions in which training or a performance improvement intervention is to occur. This is key to ensuring successful implementation of the intervention.

Decision procedure: A sequence of steps that leads to a judgment or conclusion.

Declarative knowledge: Knowledge that tells us who, what, why, when, where, and how. It is “talk-about” knowledge. Declarative knowledge breaks down into facts (such as, Montreal is a city), concepts (such as a triangle), and principles (such as, what goes up must come down).

Delivery system: The integrated grouping of media and other support mechanisms for carrying instruction to the learner. Delivery systems include self-paced, multimedia learning kits; satellite delivery video classrooms; multitask simulator trainers; and the Internet. In its simplest form, a delivery system can be a live instructor with a blackboard or even a book.

Documentation: Published products, such as print records, books, manuals, training programs, and performance support tools that store information. These can be produced as hardcopy publications or in such physical formats as videotapes, audiotapes, CD-ROMs, DVDs, online help, and other electronic forms.

Education: Activities, either deliberately designed or naturally experienced, that foster the development of general mental models and values. These form the foundation for how one views the world. They also create the basis for consistent behavior and decision-making patterns.

e-Learning: A generic label used to describe any learning materials delivered via the Web. Also, frequently referred to as Web-based training or online learning. The Web can deliver any existing type of instruction: live (synchronous) instruction via video; self-paced (asynchronous) computer-based-technology/multimedia-like or print-like materials with or without interactivity, tracking, and feedback; and collaborative learning activities such as online discussions (synchronous or asynchronous) among learners and instructors. In some cases, use of CD-ROMs and DVDs is included with e-learning.

Electronic performance support system (EPSS): A highly dynamic and complex performance support tool and system. EPSS guides the performer to attain a desired result.

Feelings: Sensations and opinions about a task, problem, person, or situation. It is important to identify feelings when conducting a front-end analysis because these will strongly influence selection and implementation of learning and performance interventions.

Fluency: The speed/agility that one strives for when a basic behavior or level of performance has been achieved. Distinguishes masters from novices.

Focus group: An informal, small-group discussion designed to obtain participants' perceptions, experiences, ideas, response to, and beliefs about a defined topic.

Formative evaluation: An evaluation conducted while a program or intervention is under development to improve its effectiveness.

Front-end analysis: A rigorous set of activities that, when fully applied, gathers data permitting the identification of desired and actual performance states. It includes clear indications of what the nature of the gap is and it identifies potential solutions—both instructional and noninstructional—for closing the gap. It is a term and methodology originally created by Joe Harless.

Human capital: The sum total of all knowledge, experience, and human performance capability an organization (or an individual) possesses that can be applied to create wealth.

Human performance technology (HPT): A recognized body of professional knowledge and skills whose aim is the engineering of systems that result in accomplishments valued by the organization and all stakeholders. The goal is human performance improvement. HPT is a disciplined professional field that is systemic in its vision and approach, systematic in its conduct, scientific in its foundation, open to all forms of intervention, and focused on achieving valued and verifiable results.

Implementation planning: Development of a plan for installing, applying, and maintaining an instructional program or set of performance interventions to ensure that there are no delays or missing support systems. This involves identifying all groups that will contribute to some aspect of the implementation and those that will be affected by it or its consequences. It also includes contingency planning.

Incentive: Something valued by an individual or group that is offered in exchange for changed or increased performance.

Incentive system: An organized program of rewards offered to motivate people to perform in specific ways.

Instruction: A set of organized activities intended to create changes in learners that permit them to generalize (that is, apply and adapt) what has been learned to new instances.

Instructional event: A learning activity designed to help learners plan, select relevant information, connect new information to prior knowledge, hone their skills through practice, and/or monitor their performance.

Instructional format: The overall design or approach for organizing a complete course or program.

Instructional method: Means for externally supporting the mental processing required for learning. An instructional method also may compensate for mental-processing or motivational deficits. It is the active ingredient for triggering learning.

Instructional strategy: A structure or design that permits a number of instructional methods to be organized and delivered to learners (for example, role-play, interactive lecture, case study, structured on-the-job training).

Instructional systems design (ISD): The main, disciplined, and systemic approach to engineering effective learning systems. It offers a mental model as well as documented procedures for how to approach the engineering of learning interventions that achieve desired, verifiable results.

Intervention: A deliberately conceived act or system specifically designed to bridge the gap between current and desired performance states. It can be complete unto itself or part of a basket of interventions. It is strategically applied to produce intended performance results. An intervention may add a performance support element or may remove an obstacle that prevents performance from occurring.

Knowledge management: The collection of processes that govern the creation, dissemination, and use of knowledge. In the current business world, knowledge has become a critical competitive asset that must be fostered, captured, stored, and shared. This requires systems that search, record, protect, and disseminate knowledge throughout an organization and across communities of practice.

Learner analysis: Identification of learner characteristics that must be taken into account for instruction to be effective. This includes background and aptitudes with respect to what is required, attitudes, learning and language preferences, and (if appropriate) tool skill abilities and deficits.

Learner-controlled instruction (LCI): A strategy that shifts power from instructor to learner. Learners receive a learning map that specifies required performance and measures along with a repertoire of resources. These may include materials specifically designed for learning or simply informational documents. Resources usually include people with whom the learner may interact or consult. Learners decide when they are ready to demonstrate performance capability, often through some form of test or work effort. LCI programs usually take place at designated model work sites where personnel have been trained to provide support, coaching, and feedback. In most cases the training or performance support department is involved in certifying performance capability.

Learner verification: The process of verifying with actual or simulated learners the effectiveness of an instructional program.

Learning: A change in cognitive (mental) structures that results in the potential for behavior change. Learning is a genetically coded ability that enables organisms to adapt to local, changing conditions in the environment.

Learning management system (LMS): Management system for online (and sometimes other forms of) learning. One type is essentially a check-in/check-out database system that keeps track of student registration and progress. Some LMSs have their own built-in assessment functions. One can run course materials of any kind within these check-in/check-out systems. A second type of LMS is one that provides a more complete set of functions not only for registration and tracking, but also for organizing materials within courses and integrating content with communication tools, multimedia resources, and integrated assessments, self-tests, and quizzes.

Live instruction: Instruction provided mainly by an individual or team face-to-face with learners (trainer, guest speaker, facilitator, master performer, and so forth). Activities may include lecture, question-and-answer session, demonstration, guided practice (including a laboratory situation), or any other learner-teacher interaction. Live instruction may include use of instructional media aids.

Mediated instruction: Generally used to describe all forms of instruction delivered by means other than a live instructor in a face-to-face context. Mostly denotes instruction provided via video and/or computer.

Motivation: An internal state that impels or drives a person to action. Motivation is strongly influenced by the value a person attributes to the action (the higher the value, the greater the motivation), the confidence of the person (under- or overconfidence decreases motivation), and the mood of the person (positive mood increases motivation). In learning and performance, motivation plays a key role along with ability and prior knowledge.

Multimedia: Combinations of media (visual, auditory, tactile) integrated to deliver an instructional message.

Needs analysis: A generic term for identifying gaps between ideal and current states.

Needs assessment: The initial analytic activity to identify and characterize gaps between desired and actual states. This term is often associated with Roger Kaufman of Florida State University. In his gap model, you begin by verifying if there is a gap between desired and actual outcomes of your system. If yes, you backward chain to identify gaps at the outputs, products, processes, and input stages. This enables you clearly to display all the gaps in the system and trace backward to initial causes. Needs assessment helps identify where gaps exist, at a mega (societal), macro (organizational), or micro (local) level.

Objective: A statement that presents in specific terms what learners or performers will be able to do as a result of a designed or specified learning experience or performance intervention. Also referred to as instructional objective or performance objective, depending on context.

On-the-job training: Training conducted within the work environment by a job expert, usually involving one or a small group of trainees.

Optimals: Visions of desired knowledge or performance.

Peer learning system: A strategy that provides structured materials to learners who then teach their peers using the materials. Peer learning requires clearly defined objectives, materials for peer teachers/tutors, evaluation instruments, and an instructor or facilitator to provide guidance and feedback.

Performance: A function of behavior and accomplishment. Performance includes what one does and the result of what one does. The behavior portion is the “cost” part of performance—the effort expended to attain the accomplishment. The accomplishment is the “benefit”—the desired or valued outcome.

Performance analysis: The initial analytic effort to identify and characterize gaps between desired and actual performance states. Also referred to as gap analysis.

Performance consulting: The set of professional activities one engages in to identify gaps in performance—either opportunities or problems—that affect an organization's results and to prescribe appropriate interventions. The key focus of performance consulting is the attainment of desired organizational results through people. The main body of professional knowledge that supports the performance consultant is HPT.

Performance engineering principles: Principles that govern the practice of human performance technology. They codify what science has discovered about human performance in the workplace. Authors who have enunciated these principles include George Geis, Thomas F. Gilbert, Geary Rummler, and Joe Harless.

Performance gap: The gap between actual performance and desired or optimal performance.

Performance management: The array of activities for identifying required performance for individuals or groups, setting and communicating expectations, monitoring activities and outcomes, providing appropriate feedback, and documenting results. It may include a provision of incentives and consequences.

Performance support: Means of providing resources, information, and assistance within the job environment to help individuals and teams achieve desired results. Web-based tools encompass a wide range of performance support possibilities: interactive job aids to assist in completing forms or performing work steps; online help for computer-based systems; interactive forms that support a predefined work flow and allow data to be carried forward to related forms or work steps; interactive content retrieval systems to provide rapid access to business-critical knowledge assets; and refresher content on previously acquired skills and knowledge. Managers, supervisors, and colleagues also are key agents of performance support.

Performance system: A system made up of a number of elements that interact with one another to ensure that people perform as desired in the workplace.

PIP (potential for improving performance): The ratio of the worth of exemplary (W_ex) performance to the worth of typical performance (W_t), usually expressed as PIP = W_ex/W_t.

Procedural knowledge: Knowledge that allows us to perform—generally to do something automatically so that we do not seem to be “thinking about it” (for example, riding a bicycle, touch typing, troubleshooting a system). Procedural knowledge includes analysis, decision, and action procedures.

Prototype: A model set of materials in a form that can be transformed through testing and refinement into a final, produced program package.

Return-on-investment (ROI): Result of a calculation that compares the value of what an investment achieves with its cost. In the human performance context, it provides a concrete means for demonstrating the value of human performance interventions and the increased value of human capital. The general formula for calculating ROI is ROI = (value - cost/cost) × 100. The result is expressed as a percentage.

Reusability: The term is now part of a new vocabulary that includes reusable information objects, reusable learning objects, reusable nuggets, and so forth. The assumption is that if we can create content and place it in an information repository in discrete chunks each time we develop information packages and/or learning programs, then we can go into this repository, withdraw relevant chunks for a particular group or individual, combine these into coherent packets, and deliver them to anyone, anywhere, at any time.

Self-study: Learners receive materials designed specifically for instruction according to the logic of learning. Learners interact solely with the material and engage in active responding. The materials may be print, computer-mediated, interactive video instruction, multimedia, and so forth. Feedback on accuracy generally is immediate and continuous.

Solutions: Means for attaining optimal performance.

Stakeholder: A person or group who has a vested interest in a project's outcome.

Structured on-the-job training (SOJT): An instructional strategy that requires the participation of training personnel, job supervisors, skilled practitioners, and learners. Learners receive objectives and guidelines from the workplace learning and performance group and are released to the job. Job supervisors monitor progress and ensure the availability of skilled workers to act as on-the-job trainers. The skilled practitioners who have been trained as structured on-the-job trainers guide learning activities and provide feedback.

Summative evaluation: An evaluation conducted to determine the effectiveness of a program or intervention. Summative evaluation provides a statement of how well the program or intervention worked.

Systematic: Elements are considered in a step-by-step, organized fashion.

Systemic: All elements are regarded as they interrelate, not piecemeal or in isolation. This viewpoint encompasses all the parts of the system working together to produce a unified, customer-desired result.

Task analysis: The breaking down of an overall task into its constituent components. The task analysis lays out the framework on which the instruction will be built. It provides a complete detailed portrait of all subtasks that must be mastered to attain desired overall performance.

Task interference: Activities that inhibit attainment of priority tasks. As an example, filling out reports and attending meetings can become task interference for achieving sales goals.

Technology: The application of scientific and organized knowledge to achieve practical ends.

Time-and-action planning: A form of planning procedure and tool that lays out a set of tasks required to achieve a goal, with start and end times for each task. It may include designated people responsible for completing each task.

Training: A set of activities designed to change behaviors in very specific and predetermined ways. If training is properly done, learners are able to reproduce the targeted behaviors. The more effective the training, the more efficiently the new behaviors are reproduced—more rapidly, with fewer deviations, and under increasingly varied and more difficult conditions—to the point of automaticity (unthinking but accurate action). The term training often encompasses all deliberately designed learning activities, and may cover instruction and education as well.

Training evaluation: The objective assessment of training results. It asks the question, “Did training create differences in the way things are?” This is a process of systematically gathering and examining data to answer a variety of questions about a training initiative (for example, are trainees learning new knowledge and skills? What is the impact on bottom-line business outcomes? What is the ROI?).

Training system: A number of elements that interact with one another to generate learning that results in desired performance on the job.

Transfer: The application by the learner of the skills or knowledge acquired in learning to the work context.

Use level: This refers to acquired knowledge that is not just stored at the “memory level” for recognition or recall purposes, but at the application level. In the former case, the learner is able to identify or talk about what she or he has learned. In the latter case, the learner is able to apply knowledge—actually do something with it (that is, discriminate between examples of good and poor customer service; calculate a discount on a customer's bill; transfer a call to another extension).

Validity: The degree to which a measuring tool actually measures what it is intended to measure.

Value: The amount buyers consider appropriate to pay for an item of goods, a commodity, or a service; the right price.

Valued accomplishment: A result obtained that the organization, the person performing, and all other significant stakeholders consider desirable.

Virtual classroom: A learning “environment” that involves the use of technology to enable instructors to reach a geographically dispersed audience without incurring travel and collateral expenses. Almost anything an instructor can present in a live, face-to-face environment can be duplicated in a virtual classroom.

Virtual team: A geographically dispersed work team that relies on interaction conducted mainly via computer and telephone with minimal, if any, face-to-face contact.

Worth: The ratio of value to cost.

Worth analysis: An analytic procedure that calculates the extent to which there is a financial benefit for closing the gap between actuals and optimals. The general formula for calculating worth is worth = value/cost. A ratio greater than 1 suggests that “it's worth it.”

Worthy performance: Performance (the combination of behaviors and accomplishments) that is “worth it” from a cost or expenditure perspective. Worthy performance (P_w) is performance in which the value generated is substantially greater than the cost of generating it.