Page numbers in italics refer to figures
‘A’-gauge jack plug, 355
‘A’-weighted self-noise, 61, 62
A/D conversion see Analogue-to-digital
3-0 stereo, 469–70
3-1 stereo, 470–2
5.1 channel surround (3-2 stereo), 240–1, 472–8, 490, 496–512
7.1 channel surround, 478–80, 490
10.2 channel surround, 480
100 volt lines, 345–7
600 ohms, 347–50
AAF see Advanced Authoring Format
AB signals, 127
ABR see Auxiliary bass radiator
Absolute phase reversal, 11
AC see Alternating current
AC-3 coding, 240–1
AC-biased tape recorders, 156
Active sensing, 396–7
Adaptive Transform Acoustic Coding (ATRAC), 241, 272, 489–90
ADR see Automatic dialogue replacement
Advanced Authoring Format (AAF), 271
AES-3 interface, 307–11
After fade listen (AFL), 116–17
AGC see Automatic gain control
Alesis digital interface, 314–15
Aliasing, 202–6, 204, 205, 207–8, 219
Alignment:
digital tape recording, 252–3
stereo misalignment effects, 446
tape recorders, 171–8
Alternating current (AC), 12, 13
Ambisonics, 473, 478, 492–7, 502, 513–18
Amplifiers, 325–33
100 volt lines, 345–7
600 ohms, 347–50
active loudspeakers, 86
balanced lines, 342
cable resistance, 337–8
classes, 326–7
coupling, 333
crosstalk, 331–2
damping factor, 332–3
DI boxes, 350–2
differential, 344–5
distribution, 358
equal-loudness contours, 30–1
heat sink areas, 325
impedance, 332
loudspeaker impedance, 88
loudspeaker power handling, 91
microphone noise, 61–2
microphone sensitivity, 60–1
mixers, 98
phase response, 333
power bandwidth, 330
power output, 329–30
reverberation time, 21
sensitivity, 328–9
signal-to-noise ratio, 332, 538
specifications, 328–33
voltage gain, 16
Amplitude, 1
conversion to electrical sound waves, 11
decibels, 14–16
digital signal processing, 230
displaying, 14
Frequency Modulation, 67
harmonics, 6
pairwise panning, 517
room modes, 22
sampling frequency, 201–2, 203
two-channel stereo, 434, 435–8
Analogue information, 194–5
Analogue interfacing, 334–58
Analogue recording, 154–81, 193–4
Analogue-to-digital (A/D) conversion, 142, 142, 199–220
interconnecting devices, 306
mastering, 299
sampling, 201–8
sound quality, 200–1
workstations, 276
Anechoic chambers, 18
Anti-aliasing filters, 206, 206, 207–8, 219
Aperture effect, 222
Apparent (auditory) source width (ASW), 37
Assignable consoles, 120–1
ASW see Apparent source width
Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM), 323–4
ATA interface, 262
ATM see Asynchronous Transfer Mode
ATRAC see Adaptive Transform Acoustic Coding
Attenuators, 62, 99, 149, 328–9, 329
Audio frequency range, 3
Audio grouping, 106, 108, 131, 144–5
Audio processing, 276–8, 292–3
Audio spectrum, 3
Auditory masking, 28, 30, 31, 235, 237–40
Aural Exciter, 369–70
Autolocate, 167–8
Automatic dialogue replacement (ADR), 426–8
Automatic gain control (AGC), 71
Automatic repeat function, 167–8
Automation, mixers, 140–9
Auxiliary bass radiator (ABR), 80
Auxiliary sends, 104, 117, 130–1, 133–4
Averaging, 249
Azimuth, 171, 173–5, 176, 180, 186, 253
‘B’-curve, 19
‘B’-gauge jack plug, 355
Balanced lines, 59, 64, 65, 341–3, 347–50
Balancing, electronic, 344–5
Bantam jack, 358
Bargraph meters, 142
Baseband, 203, 204–6, 205, 207
Bass, equal-loudness contours, 30–1
Bass loading, 79–82
Bass reflex systems, 79–80, 80, 87–8, 88
Beat frequency, 28
Bell, 113
Bell curve, 125
Bi-phase mark (FM channel code), 245–6, 311, 311, 420, 422
adjustment, 173–5
amplifiers, 326
cassette duplication, 181
Compact Cassette, 179–80
Bidirectional pattern microphones see Figure-eight microphones
Binary Format for Scenes (BIFS), 240
Binary system, 194, 195–9, 196, 208–9, 420
Binaural recording, 429, 460, 465–7
binaural stereo, 438–42
spatial perception, 38
two-channel stereo, 432, 432–3, 433–4
see also Pseudo-binaural recording
Bit oset, 428
Bit stream conversion, 222
Bluetooth, 322
Boundary microphones, 55–6
Breath controller, 403
Broadcast (mixer control), 115, 115
Broadcast WAVE format, 268, 269
Broadcasting:
jackfields, 355
live events, 352
metering, 139
sampling frequency, 208
stereo line input modules, 127
Buffering, MIDI, 401
Burst errors, 245, 247–8, 247, 249
‘C’-curve, 19
Cables:
100 volt lines, 345–7
600 ohms, 348–50
capacitance, 339–41
digital mixers, 150
inductance, 339
interconnecting digital devices, 306–7
MIDI, 379
resistance, 337–8
unbalanced lines, 337–9
Calrec 1050C microphone, 64
Calrec Soundfield, 493
Camcorders, 157
Capacitance, 339–41
Capacitor (condenser) microphones, 41, 44, 45–6, 56–7, 56
A-B powering, 64–5
cardioid pattern microphones, 53
figure-eight pattern, 50
mixers, 111
noise, 61–2
phantom power, 62–4
sensitivity, 60
Capacitors, 13
Cardioid microphones, 48–9, 50–3, 51–2, 56–7
coincident pairs, 449–51, 451, 453, 454
near-coincident pairs, 459, 459
rifle microphones, 54–5
stereo microphones, 59
surround sound recording, 504–6, 505, 508–9, 515
Cassette machines:
built-in mics, 46
harmonic distortion, 535
multitrack, 180–1
signal-to-noise ratio, 538
Cassette tapes, 157–8
bias, 163
Compact Cassette, 178–81
duplication, 181
CD see Compact Disc
Centre-track timecode, 422–3, 424
Channel (mixer control), 113–17
Channel aftertouch, 394
Channel masking, 409
Channel messages, 385–6
Channel mode messages, 391–401
Channel pan, 112
Channel paths, 102–3, 104–5, 111, 117
Channels, 120–1, 384–5, 469–70
Chase synchronisers, 419, 424–6, 425, 426
Chorus, 370–1
Cinema see Film
Circle Surround, 483
amplifiers, 328
compressor/limiters, 362–3
graphic equalisers, 361
level control in mastering, 298
metering, 137
CMR see Common mode rejection
CMRR see Common mode rejection ratio (CMRR)
Code index number (CIN), 416, 416
Coincident-pair microphones, 429, 445–60, 511–12
Comb-filtering effects, 368–9, 462–3
Common mode rejection (CMR), 132, 341, 343, 345
Common mode rejection ratio (CMRR), 132, 341
Compact Cassette, 178–81
Compact Disc (CD), 245–6
CD-Audio, 300
CD-DA, 271–2
channel coding, 245
consumer interface, 313
DTS, 489
dynamic range, 213
frequency response, 531
mastering formats, 248–50
optical disks, 258
requantisation, 227
sampling frequency, 206, 207–8
Compact Discs, 271–2
Compansion process, 183, 184–8
Complex waveforms, 4
Compression, 1, 2, 3, 8, 11–12, 12
Computers:
disk-based systems, 254–64
editing software, 287–90
interfacing with MIDI, 380–3
sampling rates, 207
workstations, 276–8
Concealment, 249
Concha resonance, 36
Condenser microphones see Capacitor microphones
Connectors, 96, 97–8, 343, 357, 379
Consumer interface, 311–13
Control change messages, 389–91, 405
Control grouping, 106, 109, 144–5
Control layers, 150–2
Controller messages, 402–4
Controller numbers, 389–91
Correlation meters, 138–9
Coupling, 333
cps see Cycle per second
CRC see Cyclic redundancy check
Critical distance, 21
edit points, 280–2
MIDI note assignment, 398–9, 400
splice editing, 253
Crossover distortion, 326
Crossover networks, 83–4, 85–6
Ambisonics, 505
amplifiers, 331–2
binaural stereo, 443–4
digital mixers, 120
digital tape recording, 252–3
loudspeaker stereo over headphones, 442
multitrack recorders, 168
stereo misalignment effects, 446
surround sound, 518–20
timecode, 422–3
Current, 11–13
Cut, 113, 116, 121, 125, 359–61
CV and gate, 373–4
Cycle per second (cps), 1
Cyclic redundancy check (CRC), 248, 253
D/A conversion see Digital-to-analogue
DA-88 format, 251–2
DAB see Digital Audio Broadcasting
Damping factor, 332–3
DASH see Digital Audio Stationary Head
DAT see Digital Audio Tape
Data byte, 384–5
Data recovery, 246
Data and sync separation, 246
Data transfer rates, 235–6, 258, 259
dbx, 188
De-essers, 370
Dead fields, 39
Decca Tree, 462–3, 462, 463, 508
Decibels, 14–16, 17–18, 19, 99, 348
Decimation, 219
Dedicated monitor mixers, 127
Degenerate modes, 23
Delta-sigma conversion, 220, 221, 223
Demagnetisation, 172–3
Demultiplexer (Demux), 143
Depth perception, 39
DI (direct injection) boxes, 350–2
Dialogue normalisation (dialnorm), 241, 488–9
Differential amplifiers, 344–5
Differential signals, 341
Diffuse fields, 18–21
Digital audio:
applications, 287–324
audio data reduction, 235–41
compression systems, 31
consumer formats, 271–5
digital information, 194–5
editing, 278–86
interconnecting devices, 306–24
principles, 193–242
signal chain, 199–220
surround sound, 486–92
workstations, 276–8
Digital Audio Broadcasting (DAB), 235
Digital Audio Stationary Head (DASH), 244, 248, 251, 252
Digital Audio Tape (DAT), 207, 208, 245, 248–50, 313, 423
Digital delay, 368–9
Digital mixers, 120–1, 122–3, 132–3, 141, 149–53
Digital multi-effects processors, 367–8
Digital noise extraction, 191–2
Digital Radio, 235
Digital recording, 157, 243–54, 243–86
A/D conversion, 199–220
channel coding, 245–6
consumer formats, 271–5
crosstalk, 539–40
disk-based systems, 254–64
editing, 253–4
error correction, 247–8
formats, 248–52
harmonic distortion, 536
MIDI contrast, 375–6
signal processing, 227–35
timecode, 419
Digital signal processing (DSP), 227–35
advanced software, 292–3
binaural stereo, 439–40, 466–7
multi-microphone pick-up, 468
plug-ins, 290
Digital Theater Systems (DTS), 241, 489
Digital Versatile Disc (DVD), 273–4
data reduction, 207
DTS, 489
DVD-Audio, 207, 237, 274, 302–4, 478, 491–2
DVD-R, 273
DVD-RAM, 273–4
DVD+RW, 273–4
DVD-RW, 273–4
formats, 273
mastering, 301–4
MLP, 291–2
optical disks, 258
sampling frequency, 208
surround sound, 487
Digital-to-analogue (D/A) conversion, 199, 202–6, 219, 221–2, 299–300, 306
DIM, 118
Dipole loudspeakers, 476, 500–1
Direct (mixer control), 112
Direct current, 12
Direct Stream Digital (DSD), 213, 222–4, 274–5
digital interfaces, 315–16, 315
editing software, 287–8
file formats, 268–70
sampling frequency, 207
Direct Stream Transfer (DST), 237, 275
Directional responses, 46–54
DirectX, 291
Disk-based systems, 243, 254–64
Distortion:
analogue recording, 193
binaural stereo, 440–2
crossover, 326
dither, 216
DSP, 228
dynamic range, 214
harmonic distortion, 30, 533–5
human perception, 30
magnetic recording, 157, 160, 171, 172, 175
metering, 137
MIDI, 377
mixers, 134
phase, 227
quantising error, 209–16
slew rate, 331
track formats, 169–70
Distributed mode loudspeakers (DML), 77–9, 78
Distribution amplifier, 358
DLS see Downloadable
Sounds DML see Distributed mode loudspeakers
Dolby A, 186–7, 186, 187, 188–9, 481
Dolby Digital, 240–1, 301, 303, 486–9
Dolby Noise, 189
Dolby S, 168
Dolby SR, 187–8, 189–90, 481, 487–8
Dolby SR-D, 487–8
Dolby Stereo, 479, 480–3, 486, 487–8
Double-diaphragm capacitor microphones, 56–7, 56
Double-tracking, 233
Downloadable Sounds (DLS), 409–11, 416
Drive units, 74–84
Drop-frame timecode, 420
Drop-in, 428
DSD see Direct Stream Digital
DSO cards, 276–8
DSP see digital signal processing
DST see Direct Stream Transfer
DTS see Digital Theater Systems
Ducking effect, 362
Dummy head techniques, 460, 460, 465–7, 511–12
DVD see Digital Versatile Disc
Dynamic microphones see Moving-coil microphones
Dynamic range, 214–16, 224–5, 241, 296–8, 297, 536–7
Dynamic voice allocation, 406–8
Dynamics control, 362–3
Dynamics section, 112–13
Early reflections, 23, 36–8, 39, 364
Earth loops, 337, 338, 342–3, 350, 355
EBU see European Broadcasting Union;
SMPTE/EBU timecode
Echo chambers, 363–4
Echo devices, 363–5, 370–1, 371
Edit decision list (EDL), 270, 279, 280–1, 284, 426–8
Editing:
CD, 271
digital tape recording, 253–4
disk-based, 278–86
edit decision list, 270, 280–1, 284, 426–8
file formats, 265
history, 156
mixing approches, 128–9
modes, 283–4
software, 287–90
synchronisers, 426–8
EDL see Edit decision list
Effective radiated power (ERP), 67
digital mixers, 120–1
DSP, 232–3
MIDI, 403–4
Effects returns, 119
EIC timecode, 249–50
Eigentones, 21–4
EIN see Equivalent input noise
Electret microphones, 46, 48, 53, 56
Electrical sound, 11–13
Electromagnetic transducers, 42, 155
Electronic balancing, 344–5
Electronic bargraph meters, 137–9, 138
Electrons, 12–13
Electrostatic loudspeakers, 76, 76
End-fire configuration, 457
Equal-loudness contours, 28–31
Equalisation (EQ):
clipping, 135
Compact Cassette, 179–80
D/A conversion, 222
digital mixers, 150
digital multi-effects processors, 367
digital signal processing, 229, 230–2
dummy head techniques, 465–6
frequency response, 533
graphic equaliser, 359–61
level setting, 130
magnetic recording, 160–3, 171–2, 173–6
mastering, 299
mixers, 96, 98, 103–5, 107, 113–14, 120–7
record players, 543–4
stereo line input, 127
variable Q, 114
Equivalent input noise (EIN), 131–2
ERP see Effective radiated power
Error detection/correction, 199, 247–8, 249, 253, 256, 306
ES-bus, 426
ESU, AES-3 interface, 307–11
European Broadcasting Union (EBU), 269, 420, 476
Fader flip, 105
digital signal processing, 228–9
grouping, 106
master, 119
Field-effect transistor (FET), 44, 145, 145
Figure-eight microphones (bidirectional pattern), 48–50, 49, 56–7, 434
coincident pairs, 447–69, 448, 453–4
stereo, 436–8
stereo microphones, 59
surround sound recording, 511–12, 515
Film:
5.1 channel surround, 476
7.1 channel surround, 478–80, 479
data reduction, 241
Dolby Digital, 486–9
four-channel surround, 471
microphones, 65
SDDS, 489–90
stereo, 434
surround sound, 480–3, 497, 498, 499, 500–1
three-channel (3-0) stereo, 469–70
THX system, 484
timecode, 423
Filtering:
analogue-to-digital (A/D) conversion, 202–6
digital signal processing, 230–2
graphic equalisers, 360–1
mixers, 96, 111, 113–14, 125–7
oversampling, 218–19
requantisation, 224–5
sample rate conversion, 234
Finite impulse response (FIR) filter (transversal filter), 231, 231
Firewire, 262, 322–3, 373, 381, 383
First overtone, 6
Five-channel surround sound stereo, 469
Flange, 370–1
Fletcher-Munson curves, 29
FM channel code see bi-phase mark
FM (Frequency Modulation):
compressor/limiter, 362
pilot tone, 185
radio microphones, 66
sampling frequency, 208
Foldback, 118
Four-channel surround (3-1 stereo), 470–2, 472
Fourier transformation, 4, 7, 230
Fractional-ratio conversion, 234
Free fields, 18–21
Frequency, 1–3
control, 113
critical bandwidth, 28
directional response patterns of microphones, 47–8, 50, 52–3
directivity of speakers, 91–3
displaying, 13–14
distance perception, 39
electrical sound waves, 13
EQ on mixers, 121–7
equal-loudness contours, 29, 30–1
graphic equalisers, 359–61
harmonics, 5
interaural time difference, 32–3
masking, 31
mixers, 113
phase, 8–11
room modes, 22–4
sampling frequency, 206–8, 207
spatial perception, 35
speed of sound, 3–4
Frequency response, 171, 180, 529–32
amplifiers, 330
binaural stereo, 442
digital signal processing, 230, 230
mixers, 134
noise reduction, 188
stereo misalignment effects, 446
Frequency shifter, 368
Frequency spectra:
repetitive sounds, 5–7
spatial perception, 36
Frequency-dividing (crossover) networks, 83–4, 85–6
Frequency-domain plots, 4, 5, 7, 13–14
Full normalling, 356
Full-featured synchronisers, 426–8, 427
Gain, 16
automation, 140–5
compressor/limiter, 363
digital signal processing, 228–9, 233
level setting, 129–30
monitors, 98
Gated snare drum, 191
GPO-type sockets, 354–5
Graphic equalisers, 359–61, 359, 370
Ground reflection, 39
Grouping, mixers, 106, 108–9, 131
Guitar amplifiers, 365
Haas Effect, 34
Harmonic distortion, 30, 89, 211, 213, 330–1, 533–5
Harmonisers, 371
Head inspection, 172–3
Head-and-torso simulator (HATS), 465, 465
Head-related panning, 518–20
Head-related transfer function (HRTF), 34–6, 35–6, 440–4, 465–7, 517
Headphones:
binaural localisation, 432
dummy head techniques, 465–6
impedance, 99
in-the-head localisation, 36
loudspeaker stereo, 442–5
naturalness, 39–40
near-coincident microphones, 458
spatial perception, 38
stereo, 438–42
two-channel stereo, 430
Heat, 15
Helical scanning, 244
Helmholtz absorbers, 20
Hertz (Hz), 1
Hexadecimal, 197, 197, 198, 209, 211
Hi-com, 188
High-pass filters (HPF), 111, 113, 126–7, 127, 230
Hiss:
dbx, 188
dither, 216
equal-loudness contours, 31
frequency response, 532
microphones, 61
mixers, 111
pre-emphasis, 183
Hold, 249
Home THX system, 484
Horn loudspeakers, 81–2, 88, 89, 91
Host-based audio processing, 278
HPF see High-pass filters
HRTF see Head-related transfer function
Hypercardioid microphones, 53–4, 53, 449, 453, 454
Hz see Hertz
IDE interface, 262
IEC interface, 311–13
IEEE 1394, 416–17
IFF see Interchange format files
Impedance, 13
100 volt lines, 345–7
600 ohms, 347–50
amplifiers, 332
DI boxes, 350–2
headphones, 99
mixers, 133–4
radio microphones, 71
splitter boxes, 352–3
transformers, 334–6
Impulse response, 230–1, 230, 232–3
In-line console, 103–6, 104, 107
In-place solo, 117
In-the-head localisation, 36, 439, 442
Inductance, 339
Inductors, 13
‘Infinite baffle’ systems, 79
Infinite impulse response (IIR) filter (recursive filter), 231–3, 232
Inharmonic partials, 6–7
Input channels, 96–8, 110, 111, 149–52, 151
Input gain control, 107–9
Input noise, 131–3
Insertion return socket, 355–6
Insertion send socket, 355–6
Integral synchronisers, 147
Interactive authoring, 305–6
Interaural time delay (ITD), 32–3, 33, 36, 432–3, 442–5
Interchange format files (IFF), 265–70
Interconnection, 150, 306–24, 334–58
Interfaces:
analogue, 334–58
digital devices, 306–24
digital mixers, 150
MIDI, 373–417
workstations, 276–8
Interference:
common mode rejection, 132
digital audio, 193–4
MIDI, 379
noise reduction, 182
star-quad cable, 343–4
Intermodulation (IM) distortion, 30, 538–9
protocols, 320–1
Inverse-square law, 17, 17, 18
iPod, 240
ITD see Interaural time delay
Jackfields, 96–7, 111–12, 119–20, 150, 354–8
Key pressure messages, 388–9
Keygroups, 397
Kilobyte, 195
Lake Huron, 292–3
LANs see Local area networks
Laser pickups, 549
LCRS surround, 470–2
Least significant bit (LSB), 195, 216
MIDI, 389–91
Requantisation, 224–7
LEDs see Light Emitting Diodes
Level:
5.1 channel surround, 478
amplifiers, 328–9
digital signal processing, 228–9
input noise, 132–3
magnetic recording, 170–2
metering, 135–40
metering standards, 139–40
microphones, 46
mixers, 129–30
stereo misalignment effects, 446
Level difference stereo, 434, 435–8
microphones, 447–51
multi-microphone pick-up, 466–7
near-coincident microphones, 458
spaced microphone configurations, 461–4
LFE channel see Low-frequency effects
Licences, radio microphones, 67
Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs), 137, 138, 142–3
Line level:
microphones, 46
open-reel recorders, 164
stereo input, 127
Line-up, 188–90
Line-up standards, 136, 139–40
Line-up tone, 66
Liquid crystal displays (LCD), 137, 138
Loading, loudspeakers, 79–82
Local area networks (LANs), 316–20, 317
Locks, synchronisers, 427
Logic control, 178
Logical operations, 198–9
Long Playing (LP) records, 156, 193, 533, 540, 541–9
Loop, 428
Loop resistance, 337–8
Lossless coding, 236–7, 236, 274, 491–2
Loudhailers, 82
critical bandwidth, 28
human perception, 25, 27–30, 39
measuring SPLs, 19
see also Amplitude
Loudspeakers, 74–95
100 volt lines, 345–7
5.1 channel surround, 472–8
active, 85–6
Ambisonics, 495–6
cable resistance, 338
damping factor, 332–3
directivity, 91–3
dummy head techniques, 465–6
electromagnetic transducers, 42
enclosure, 74
four-channel surround, 470–2
frequency response, 89–90, 90, 531, 533
impedance, 87–8, 328, 332, 345–7
loading, 79–82
multichannel panning, 516–20
multiple-speaker systems, 92–3
naturalness, 39–40
performance, 87–93
phase, 93–4
positioning, 94–5
power amplifiers, 325–6
precedence effect, 34
reverberation time, 21
room modes, 24
setting up, 93–5
systems, 82–4
three-channel (3-0) stereo, 469–70, 470
THX system, 484
transaural stereo, 443–4
two-channel stereo, 429–38, 445–7
types, 74–9
Low-frequency effects (LFE) channel, 473, 476–7, 478, 480, 488, 502
Low-pass filters (LPF), 111, 113
DSD, 223
DSP, 230
EQ section, 126–7
sample rate conversion, 234
sampling frequency, 207
LPF see Low-pass filters
LPs see Long Playing records
LR microphones, 429, 445–51, 452–3
LSB see Least significant bit
LTC see Longitudinal timecode
Magnetic hard disks, 255–7, 255
Magnetic recording, 156, 159–64, 170–2
Magnetic tape, 156–9
Magneto-optical (M-O) format, 258, 272
Masking, 28, 30, 31, 235, 237–40
Mass storage media, 255–64
Master control section, 118–19
Master faders, 119
Mastering, 128, 129, 157, 164, 294–306
Matrixed surround sound systems, 480–6
Maximum output level (MOL), 171, 172, 535, 537
Mayer SB-1 loudspeaker, 93
Mechanical transport functions, 176–8
Media Exhange Format (MXF), 270–1
Megabytes, 195
Meridian Lossless Packing (MLP), 237, 274, 303–4, 491–2
Meter take-off point, 140
Metering, 121, 129–30, 135–40, 171
Mic level trim, 106
Mic to mix, 115
Mic/Line switch, 111
Microphones, 41–73
600 ohms, 347–50
Ambisonics, 493–5
bass tip-up, 45
Bessel Array, 93
cable capacitance, 339–40, 340
cable resistance, 337–8
conversion to electrical sound waves, 11–12, 12
DI boxes, 350–2
digital mixers, 120
directional responses, 46–54
dummy head techniques, 465–7
early history, 155
electromagnetic transducers, 42
end-fire configuration, 457
harmonic distortion, 536
level setting on mixers, 129–30
mixing approaches, 128–9
near-coincident, 458–60
performance, 59–62
powering options, 62–5
radio, 65–73
side-fire configurations, 457
splitter boxes, 352–3
star-quad cables, 344
surround sound, 502–16
transformers, 336
two-channel stereo, 431–6, 445–64
types, 41–6
Midas Heritage 3000, 152–3, 152
Middle and side (MS) see Sum and difference
MIDI see Musical Instrument Digital Interface
MIDI Machine Control (MMC), 147
MIDI Timecode (MTC), 413–14
Miller-squared channel code, 245, 247
Mix routing switches, 112
fader automation, 140–5
multitrack mixers, 102–3
noise gates, 191
routing section of mixer, 111–12
split-monitoring console, 103
Mixers, 96–153
600 ohms, 347–50
automation, 140–9
basic operation, 129–31
coincident-pair microphones, 457, 458
DI boxes, 350
dither, 216
DSP, 228–30
facilities, 107–20
input channels, 96–8
jackfields, 354–8
metering systems, 135–40
mixing approaches, 128–9
multitrack, 102–16
normalling, 355–7
output section, 98
sensitivity, 98
six-channel, 96–101
splitter boxes, 352–3
technical specifications, 131–5
see also Digital mixers
Mixing noise, 133
MLP see Meridian Lossless Packing
MMC see MIDI Machine Control
Mobile phones, 408–9
Modes, 6
Modified Discrete Cosine Transform (MDCT) filter blocks, 239, 272
MOL see Maximum output level
Monitor mixers, 103, 104, 127–8
Monitor phase reverse, 118
Monitor selection, 118
Monitor signal path, 102–3, 104–5
Monitor-to-bus, 115
Monitoring, loudspeakers, 85
Monitors:
dedicated monitor mixers, 103, 104, 127–8
PFL, 101
surround sound, 497–501
Mono:
four-channel surround, 471
multi-microphone pick-up, 467–8
reverb devices, 367
spaced microphones, 462
stereo vector summation, 437
track formats, 169–70
two-channel signal formats, 445
MONO (mixer control), 118
MOSFET (Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistor), 327
Most significant bit (MSB), 195, 196, 199
Motion sensing, 178
Moving-coil loudspeakers, 74–6, 75, 79
Moving-coil (dynamic) microphones, 41–3, 53, 60, 61–2
MP3 see MPEG-1, Layer
MPEG (Moving Pictures Expert Group) standards, 237–40, 239, 268, 490–1
MPEG-1, Layer 3 (MP3), 239, 239, 268, 305, 491
MPEG-2 AAC (Advanced Audio Coding), 239–40, 490–1
MPEG-2 BC (Backwards Compatible), 239, 490–1, 491
MPEG-4, 240, 305–6, 373, 409–11, 490
MPX see Multiplexer
MS see Sum and difference
MSB see Most significant bit
MTC see MIDI Timecode
Multi-effects processors, 367–8, 367, 371
Multi-microphone pick-up, 463, 466–7, 513
Multi-path distortion, 71–3, 72
Multi-Speaker arrays, 327
Multichannel stereo, 469–518
Multitrack recorders, 167–8, 168
alignment, 176
cassette recorders, 180–1
history, 156
in-line mixers, 106
jackfields, 355
mixing approaches, 128–9
track formats, 170
Multitrack routing buses, 131
Mults, 357
Music:
mixing approaches, 128–9
Musical notes, 386–7, 387, 397–400
timing data, 411–13
Musical Instrument Digital Interface (MIDI), 373–417
cables, 379
channels, 384–5
connectors, 379
contrast with digital recording, 375–6
control of sound generators, 397–406
digital mixers, 121
digital multi-effects processors, 367–8, 371–2
editing software, 287
file formats, 265
functions of sound generators, 400–1
General MIDI, 406–8
IEEE 1394, 416–17
interfacing with computers, 380–3
mixers, 102
mixing approaches, 129
note assignment, 397–400
ports, 380–3
simple interconnection, 380
software, 383
synchronisation, 411–14
Musical instruments:
audio groups, 131
DI boxes, 350–2
early recordings, 154
level setting, 129–30
MIDI, 373–417
splitter boxes, 352–3
Mute, 116, 117, 145, 145, 147, 249
MXF see Media Exchange Format
Naturalness, 39–40
NC see noise criterion
Near field, 18
Near-coincident microphones, 458–60
Near-field monitors, 18
Negative numbers, binary system, 195, 196
Neumann KU100, 444, 460, 466, 466, 512
Neumann RSM 19li, 454–5, 455–6
Noise, 4
amplifiers, 332
analogue recording, 193
audio bit rate reduction, 237–8
digital audio, 193–4
digital mixers, 120
digital restoration software, 294–6, 294–6
DSP, 228
dynamic range, 214
error correction in digital recording, 247–8
magnetic recording, 171
masking, 31
quantising error, 209–16
sample rate conversion, 234
tape machines, 173
track formats, 169–70
see also Noise reduction
Noise criterion (NC), 19
Noise gates, 191
Noise reduction, 182–92
line-up, 188–90
masking, 31
multitrack recorders, 168
open-reel recorders, 165
surround sound, 481
see also Dolby
Noise shaping, 219–20, 222, 223–5
Noise weighting curves, 537
Non-linear editing, 278–86
Non-registered parameter numbers (NRPNs), 405
Normalling, 120, 133–4, 355–7, 356
Note assignment, 397–400
Note on/note off messages, 386–7, 388
NR see Noise rating
NRPNs see Non-registered parameter numbers
Nudge, 428
Null LEDs, 142–3
Nyqist frequency, 202, 204, 204, 205, 218, 220, 234
Odd even both (mixer control), 112
OMFI see Open Media Framwork Interchange
Omnidirectional microphones, 47–9, 47, 48, 55–7
coincident pairs, 449–50
frequency response, 533
near-coincident pairs, 459
pressure-zone microphones, 55–6
surround sound recording, 505, 508–9
Open Media Framwork Interchange (OMFI), 270, 271
Open Sound Control (OSC), 417
Open-reel digital recording, 248, 251–2
Open-reel tape recording, 157, 158–9, 164–5, 176–8, 177, 243–4
Operating levels, 16
Optical disks, 257–8
OSC see Open Sound Control
Oscillator, 119
Oset, 428
Out-of-phase phenomenon, 39–40
Outboard equipment, 359–72
Output BNC coax sockets, 133
Output noise, 133
Outside broadcasts, 54–5
Overload margins, 135
Overload point, 214
Oversampling, 206, 218–19, 219, 220, 220–1, 222
Overtones, 5–7
PA systems see Public Address systems
Pad, 111
Pairwise amplitude panning, 517
PAL television, 420
Palladium, 358
PAM see Pulse amplitude modulation
Pan, 130
audio groups and mixers, 108
multi-microphone pick-up, 467–8
multichannel, 516–20
two-channel signal formats, 445
vector summation, 437
Pan-pot law, 467–8, 516–20, 519
Panel speakers, 76–9
Panned-spot microphones, 447
Parallel format, 197, 197, 209, 212
Parameter controllers, 405
Parametric equalisation, 367, 370
Partials, 5–7
Patchfield, 96–7, 111–12, 119–20, 150, 354–8
PCI see Peripheral component interface
PCM see Pulse-code modulation
PDM see Pulse Density Modulation
Peak Program Meter (PPM), 135–7, 136, 172
Peak recording level, 137
Peaking, 113
Peaking filters, 230
Perception, 14, 16, 25–40, 214, 429–42
Peripheral component interface (PCI), 276–7
Peripheral interfaces, 262, 276–8
PFL see Pre-fade listen Phantom images, 438, 450–1
5.1 channel surround, 477–8, 502
multi-microphone pick-up, 467
quadrophonics, 492
spaced arrays, 462
surround sound, 503, 504–5, 516
two-channel stereo, 434–8
balanced lines, 342
DI boxes, 352
digital mixers, 150
jackfields, 120
Phase, 8–11
amplifiers, 333
binaural stereo, 442
cardioid pattern microphones, 50
coincident-pair microphones, 447, 450–7
directivity of speakers, 91–3
figure-eight pattern
naturalness, 39–40
spaced microphones, 462–3
spatial perception, 32–3
stereo misalignment effects, 446
Phase comparators, 246
Phase distortion, 227
Phase meters, 138–9
Phase reverse, 111
Pilot tone, 185
Pink noise, 7, 89, 179–80, 189
Pit Signal Processing (PSP), 304–5
Pitch:
human perception, 26–8
inharmonic overtones, 7
non-repetitive sounds, 7
repetitive sounds, 4
Pitch bend wheel, 394
Pitch shifting, 233
Polar diagrams, 46–54, 56–7, 447–51
Polar response, loudspeakers, 76, 92
Polyphonic key pressure, 388–9
Polyphony, 399–400
Portable recorders, 166–7, 167
Portastudio, 180–1
Ports, MIDI, 380–3
Post-fade auxiliary, 130–1
Post-roll, 428
Power, 16–18
Power amplifiers, 325–33
Power bandwidth, 330
Power handling, 91
Power output, 329–30
PPM see Peak Program Meter
PPQN see Pulses-per-quarter-note
PQ encoding, 300–1
Pre-emphasis, 182–8
Pre-fade auxiliary, 130
Pre-fade listen (PFL), 98, 101, 116, 129–30
Pre-roll, 428
Precedence effect, 34
spaced microphone configurations, 461–3
surround sound, 481–2
two-channel stereo, 431, 432–3, 436–8
Pressure, 16–18
Pressure-gradient microphones, 45, 49–50, 53
Pressure-zone microphones (PZM), 55–6
Probability distribution, dither, 217
Program change messages, 393–4, 404–8, 408
ProTools, 277
Pseudo-binaural recording, 460, 460, 511–12, 518–20
PSP see Pit Signal
Processing Psychoacoustics:
Ambisonics, 492
coincident pairs, 449–50
digital recording, 214
effects, 370
four-channel surround, 471–2
surround sound, 517
Public Address (PA) systems:
frequency shifter, 368
horn loading, 81–2
power bandwidth, 330
sensitivity, 88
splitter boxes, 352–3
Pulse, frequency spectra, 7, 7
Pulse amplitude modulation (PAM), 202, 202, 203, 219, 222
Pulse Density Modulation (PDM), 223
Pulse-code modulation (PCM), 196, 208, 214–16
audio data reduction, 235–9
digital tape recording, 243–4
editing software, 287–8
interfaces, 312
PCM-1610 (Sony), 248
PCM-1630 (Sony), 248
PCMCIA, 262
Pulses-per-quarter-note (PPQN), 411
Pure tones, 4
PZM see Pressure-zone microphones
Q, 113
digital multi-effects processors, 367
EQ section, 125–7
graphic equalisers, 359–61, 360
radio microphones, 72
variable, 114
Quadraphonic reproduction, 471, 492
Quantising, 200, 202, 208–17, 209, 211, 224–7
Quantising error, 208–16, 209–13
Quantising noise, 213, 219–20, 221, 224–5, 237–8, 238
Quantising resolution, 209–16, 218, 224–7, 307
Quarter-frame MTC messages, 414
R-DAT, 157, 244, 245, 248–50, 250, 423
Radio:
compressor/limiter, 362
frequency response, 531
sampling frequency, 208
RAI pair, 459
RAID see Redundant Array of Inexpensive Disks
Random Access Memory (RAM), 258–60, 259, 276
Rarefaction, 1, 2, 3, 8, 11–12, 12
Reactance, 13
Record alignment, 173–5
Rectangular probability distribution function (RPDF), 217
Recursive filter see Infinite impulse response filter
Redundancy, 248
Redundant Array of Inexpensive Disks (RAID), 256, 257
Reed-Solomon encoding, 248–50
Reel-rocking, 284–6
Reference levels, 135, 137, 139–40, 171–2
distance perception, 39
free/reverberant fields, 18–21
radio microphones, 71
room modes, 22–4
simulating, 363–7
Registered parameter
numbers (RPNS), 405
Release media, 300–6
Remote control, 147
Repetitive sounds, 5–7
Replay alignment, 173
Replay head effects, 162
Requantisation, 224–7, 238, 299
Reset message, 397
Resistance, 12–13, 337–8, 345–6
Resistance and capacitance (RC), 163
Resonance, loudspeakers, 79–80, 87–8
Reverb devices, 23, 119, 363–7, 370–1
Reverberation, 230
digital signal processing, 227, 232–3
distance perception, 39
multi-microphone pick-up, 467
surround sound recording, 513
Reverberation chamber, 363–4, 364
Reverberation plate, 364–5, 364
Reverberation time (RT), 20, 24, 364
RIAA, 543–4
A-B powering, 65
figure-eight pattern, 48–50
noise, 61–2
phantom power, 63–4
sensitivity, 60
Rich Music Format (RMF), 409
RIFF WAVE, 267–8, 267, 268, 269
Ring tones, 408–9
RMF see Rich Music Format
RMID, 409
RMS see Root-mean-square
Room gain, 94
Room modes, 20–4
Root-mean-square (RMS), 330
Rotary-head systems, 244, 248, 250–1
Routing, 96, 111–12, 120–1, 131, 149
multitrack routing buses, 131
RPDF see Rectangular probability distribution function
RPNs see Registered parameter numbers
RT see Reverberation time
Sabine, W. C., 20
SACD see Super Audio Compact Disc
SADiE, 287–90, 288, 289, 294, 294–6
Sample rate conversion, 234–5
Samplers, 397–418
Sampling:
A/D conversion, 199, 200, 201–8, 201
digital filtering, 230–1
sample rate conversion, 234–5
Sampling frequency, 203, 204–8
digital-to-analogue conversion, 222
input noise, 133
noise shaping, 219–20
oversampling, 218–19
sound quality, 206–8
SAOL see Structured Audio Orchestra Language
SASL see Structured Audio Score Language
Satellite link broadcasts, 191
Sawtooth wave, 5
Scalable polyphonic MIDI (SPMIDI), 408–9
Scenes, 240
Schoeps CMC-5 microphone, 64
Schoeps KFM6U microphone, 460, 460
Schoeps Sphere microphone, 444, 511–12
Screening braid, 337–44, 337–8, 344
SCSI see Small Computer Systems Interface
SDDS see Sony Dynamic Digital Sound
SECAM television, 420
Self-noise, 61–2
Semi-professional tape recorders, 165–6, 166, 168
Serial format, 197, 197, 209, 212, 375, 377
Session masters, 128
Shelving, 113
Shelving filters, 230
Side-fire configurations, 457
Signal cancellation, 72
Signal paths, mixers, 103–5
Signal-to-noise (S/N) ratio, 536–7
amplifiers, 332
digital systems, 213–16
DSD, 224
microphones, 61–2
SIL see Sound intensity level
Simple harmonic motion, 2
Simulcast, 115
Sine waves, 2, 3, 4, 5, 5, 8–11
Single-ended noise reduction, 190–1
Six-channel mixer, 96–101
Slew rate distortion, 331
Small Computer Systems Interface (SCSI), 262
SMART see System Managed Audio Resource Technique
SMF see Standard MIDI files
SMPTE/EBU timecode, 245, 250, 270, 413–14, 419–22, 421
Snare drum, gated, 191
Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers (SMPTE), 419–22
Software, 287–90, 292–3, 294–6, 383
Solid state recording formats, 276
Solo, 116–17
Sone, 30
Song position pointers (SPPs), 411–13
Sony, 315–16
Sony Dynamic Digital Sound (SDDS), 241, 489–90
Sound cards, 276–7, 278, 381, 383
Sound Designer formats, 264–5, 265
Sound field, 2
Sound intensity level (SIL), 17, 17
Sound power, 16–18
Sound pressure level (SPL), 15, 16–18
free/reverberant fields, 18, 20, 21, 21
human perception, 28–30
measuring, 19
microphone sensitivity, 60
reverberation time, 21
Sound quality:
A/D conversion, 200–1
mastering, 298–300
quantising resolution, 209–16
requantisation, 225–7
sampling frequency, 206–8
Sound scenes, 240
Sound stage width, 37
Sound waves, 1–14
Soundfield microphones, 58, 60, 513–16, 514–16
SoundFonts, 410
Spaced microphones, 429, 431–4, 445–64
Spaciousness:
apparent source width, 37
binaural stereo, 440
four-channel surround, 471
near-coincident microphones, 458–60
spaced microphones, 462
surround sound recording, 505
two-channel stereo, 430
Spatial ambience, 506–11
Spatial equalisation, 444–5
Spatial perception, 32–40, 93–4, 429–42
Spectrum analyser, 14, 14, 138
SPL see Sound pressure level
Splash, 94
Splice editing, 253
Split-monitoring console, 103, 104
Splitter boxes, 352–3
SPMIDI see Scalable polyphonic MIDI (SPMIDI)
Spoked-wheel effect, 204–5
Spot erasure, 168
Spot microphones, 467–8, 502–4, 513
Spring reverb, 365
SSL, Total Recall, 147–8
Stage box, 358
Standard MIDI files (SMF), 406, 407
Standards:
5.1 channel surround, 474–6, 474
digital interface formats, 307–14
file formats, 264–74
sampling frequency, 206–7, 207
Standing Wave Ratio (SWR) meters, 71
Stationary-head systems, 243–4
Stereo:
history, 155–6
misalignment effects, 446
pan control and mixers, 100
reverb devices, 367
signal metering, 139
surround sound, 469–518
track formats, 169–70
two-channel stereo, 429–68
Stereo line input, 127
Stereo microphones, 57–8
Stereo mix buses, 100
Stereo mix outputs, 108
Stereo mix path, 102–3
Stereo width, 448, 449–50, 453–4, 455
Stereophonic situations, 432–3
Storage, 254–64
CD, 271
data reduction, 235–6
DVD, 273–4
sampling frequency, 208
Solid state recording formats, 276
Straight-to-stereo, 128
Structured Audio (SA), 240, 373
Structured Audio Orchestra Language (SAOL), 240, 409–11
Structured Audio Score Language (SASL), 409–11
Subwoofers, 86, 475, 476–7, 499–500, 501
Sum and difference (MS), 57–9, 127, 139, 437, 445–58
Super Audio Compact Disc (SACD), 222–3, 237, 272–4, 275, 478
file formats, 268–70
mastering, 304–5
Supercardioid microphones, 504, 510–11
Surround sound, 128, 240–1, 303, 462, 469–518
Swept mid, 125
Switchable polar patterns, 56–7, 56
SWR see Standing Wave Ratio Sync replay, 168, 169
Synchronisation, 235, 307, 374, 411–14, 419–28
Synchronisers, 424–9
Synthesisers, 350, 373–7, 397–418
Synthetic audio control, 373–417
System exclusive message, 395–6
System messages, 385–6
System real-time messages, 411–13
Tail-out storage, 164
Talkback, 118
Tape counters, 178
Tape recording:
5.1 channel surround, 475
alignment, 171–6
analogue, 156–81
automation, 147
cable capacitance, 340–1
cable resistance, 337
crosstalk, 540
dynamic range, 537
frequency response, 533
history, 156
mechanical transport functions, 176–8
metering, 136–7
noise reduction, 182–92, 187–8
sampling frequency, 207
tape recorder, 164–9
timecode, 422–4
Tascam digital interface (TDIF), 314, 314
TDM see Time Division Multiplex
Telcom c4, 188
Telecommunications, 348
Television, 65, 208, 419–20, 476
THD see Total Harmonic Distortion
Theatre:
digital mixers, 150
jackfields, 355
loudspeakers, 86
microphones, 54
radio microphones, 65
track routing switches, 112
Third-harmonic distortion, 171, 172, 534–5
Three-channel (3-0) stereo, 431–2, 431, 434, 469–70
Three-way loudspeaker systems, 84
TID see Transient intermodulation distortion
Time difference:
near-coincident microphones, 458
spaced microphone configurations, 461–4
spatial perception, 32–3
Time Division Multiplex (TDM), 277–8
Time-domain plots, 3, 4, 13–14
digital mixers, 121
MIDI, 411–14
R-DAT, 249–50
synchronisers, 424–9
tape recording, 422–4
Total automation systems, 141, 147–8
Total Harmonic Distortion (THD), 134, 536
TPDF see Triangular probability distribution function
Track formats, 169–70
Track routing switches, 111–12
Track subgroup, 106
Tracklaying, mixers, 102–3
Transaural stereo, 443–4
Transducers, 155
echo plate, 364–5
electromagnetic, 42
frequency response, 532–3
harmonic distortion, 535
microphones, 41
spring reverb, 365
Transformers, 334–6
100 volt lines, 345–7
balanced lines, 341, 341, 342–3, 344–5
DI boxes, 350–1
impedance, 334–6
inductance, 339
splitter boxes, 352–3
Transient distortion, 330–1, 331
Transient intermodulation distortion (TID), 330–1
Transmitters, radio microphones, 66, 66, 67, 68–73
Transversal filter (FIR filter) see Finite impulse response filter
Transverse scanning, 244
Triangular probability distribution function (TPDF), 217
True Total Reset, 148
Tune request, 396
Tweeters, 77, 83–4, 83, 91, 92
Two-channel panel laws, 467–8
Two-channel stereo, 429–68
Two-element aerials, 69
Two-track formats, 169–70
Two-way speaker systems, 83, 87, 87
Two’s complement, 196
UART see Universal Asynchronous Receiver/Transmitter
UHF band, 67
Unbalanced lines, 337–9
Unbalanced outputs, 350–2
Unidirectional pattern microphones see Cardioid microphones
Universal Asynchronous Receiver/Transmitter (UART), 146, 146, 377
Universal Serial Bus (USB), 262, 323, 373, 380–3, 415–16, 415
Universal system exclusive messages, 395–6
USB see Universal Serial Bus
User datagram protocol (UDP), 417
Variable pre-emphasis, 182–8
VCA see Voltage controlled amplifier
Velocity bytes, 387, 388, 401–2
Velocity microphones, 436–8
Vertical Interval Timecode (VITC), 422
Video:
digital audio taping, 242–3
frame rates, 419–20
monitors, 95
synchronisers, 426–8
Virtual Studio Technology (VST), 291
VITC see Vertical Interval Timecode
Vocals:
compressor/limiter, 362
de-esser, 370
level setting, 129–30
Voltage controlled amplifier (VCA), 106, 109, 140–5, 142, 147
Voltage-controlled oscillator (VCO), 246
Volume Unit (VU) meter, 135–7, 136, 172
VRML see Virtual reality modelling language
VST see Virtual Studio Technology
VU see Volume Unit
Wave field synthesis, 432
Waveforms, 11–14
Webers (Wb), 172
Weighted Root-Mean Square (WRMS), 538
Weighting filters, 19
White noise, 7, 179–80, 216, 217
Williams curves, 437, 437, 459, 459, 504–5
Wireless networks, 321–2
Woodles, 162
Woofers, 83–4
Wrap, 174
Write-once-read-many (WORM), 258
XLR-type connectors, 96, 97–8, 253, 343, 350, 352, 357, 379
XMF (eXtensible Music Format), 409
Zenith alignment, 174
Zero level, 16
ZIPI, 417