Cause-and-Effect Diagram

Often called the “fishbone” diagram, this method can be used in brainstorming sessions to locate factors that may influence a situation. This is a tool used to identify possible causes of a problem by representing the relationship between an effect and its possible cause.

Flowchart

This is a graphical method of documenting a process. It is a diagram that shows the sequential steps of a process or of a workflow that go into creating a product or service. The justification of flowcharts is that to improve a process, one must first understand it.

Pareto Chart

This is a commonly used graphical technique in which events to be analyzed are named. The incidents are counted by name, and the events are ranked by frequency in a bar chart in ascending sequence. Pareto analysis applies the 80/20 rule. An example of this is when 20 percent of an organization’s customers accounts for 80 percent of the revenue. This implies that the focus should be on the 20 percent.

Run Chart

A run chart is a graphical technique that graphs data points in chronological order to illustrate trends of a characteristic being measured, to assign a potential cause rather than random variation.

Histogram

A histogram is a graphical description of measured values organized according to the frequency or relative frequency of occurrence. It also provides the average and variation.

Scatter Diagram

A scatter diagram is a graph designed to show where there is a relationship between two variables or changing factors.

Control Chart

A control chart is a statistical method for distinguishing between special and common variations exhibited by processes. It is a run chart with statistically determined upper and lower limits drawn on either side of the process averages.

Point 1: Create Constancy of Purpose

Most companies tend to dwell on their immediate problems without adequate attention to the future. According to Deming, “It is easy to stay bound up in the tangled knots of the problems of today, becoming ever more and more efficient in the future, but no company without a plan for the future will stay in business.” A constancy of purpose requires innovation (e.g., long-term planning for it), investment in research and education, and continuous improvement of products and service.

To apply this point, an information technology quality assurance organization can do the following:

1. ■ Develop a quality assurance plan that provides a long-range quality direction.

2. ■ Require software testers to develop and maintain comprehensive test plans for each project.

3. ■ Encourage quality analysts and testers to come up with new and innovative ideas to maximize quality.

4. ■ Strive to continuously improve quality processes.

Point 2: Adopt the New Philosophy

Quality must become the new religion. According to Deming, “The cost of living depends inversely on the goods and services that a given amount of money will buy, for example, reliable service reduces costs. Delays and mistakes raise costs.” Consumers of goods and services end up paying for delays and mistakes, which reduces their standard of living. Tolerance of acceptable levels of defects in systems is the roadblock between quality and productivity, i.e., the rush to verify quality will diminish the quality level.

To apply this point, an information technology quality assurance organization can do the following:

1. ■ Educate the information technology organization on the need and value of quality.

2. ■ Promote the quality assurance department to the same level as any other department.

3. ■ Defuse the notion that quality assurance is negative and that it is a “watchdog” function.

4. ■ Develop a risk management plan, and do not accept any anomalies outside the range of acceptable risk tolerance.

Point 3: Cease Dependence on Mass Inspection

The old way of thinking is to inspect bad quality out. A better approach is to use inspection to see how we are doing, and not leave it to the final product stage, when it is difficult to determine where in the process a defect took place. Quality should be built in without the dependence on mass inspections.

To apply this point, an information technology quality assurance organization can do the following:

1. ■ Promote and interject technical reviews, walkthroughs, and inspections as nondefensive techniques for achieving quality throughout the entire development cycle.

2. ■ Instill the need for the whole organization to be quality conscious and treat it as a tangible, measurable work product deliverable.

3. ■ Require statistical evidence of information technology quality.

Point 4: End the Practice of Awarding Business on Price Tag Alone

“Two or more suppliers for the same item will multiply the evils that are necessarily inherent and bad enough with any one supplier.” A buyer will serve her company best by developing a long-term relationship of loyalty and trust with a single vendor. Rather than using standards manuals by which vendors must qualify for business, a better approach is active involvement by the supplier’s management with Deming’s 14 points.

To apply this point, an information technology quality assurance organization can do the following:

1. ■ Require software quality and test vendors to provide statistical evidence of their quality.

2. ■ Pick the best vendor for each quality assurance tool, testing tool, or service, and develop a working relationship consistent with the quality plan.

Point 5: Improve Constantly and Ceaselessly the System of Production and Service

Improvement is not a one-time effort: management is obliged to improve quality continuously. As Deming points out, “Putting out fires is not improvement. Finding a point out of control, finding the special cause and removing it is only putting the process back to where it was in the first place. The obligation for improvement is a ceaseless process.”

To apply this point, an information technology quality assurance organization can do the following:

1. ■ Constantly improve quality assurance and testing processes.

2. ■ Not rely on judgment.

3. ■ Use statistical techniques such as root cause-and-effect analysis to uncover the sources of problems and test analysis.

Point 6: Institute Training and Retraining

Often, little or no training is provided to workers, and they do not know when they have done their jobs correctly. It is very difficult for a worker to unlearn improper training. Deming stresses that training should not end as long as performance is not in statistical control and there is something to be gained.

To apply this point, an information technology quality assurance organization can do the following:

1. ■ Institute modern training aids and practices.

2. ■ Encourage quality staff to constantly increase their knowledge of quality and testing techniques by attending seminars and classes.

3. ■ Reward staff for creating new seminars and special interest groups.

4. ■ Use statistical techniques to determine when training is needed and completed.

Point 7: Institute Leadership

As Deming points out, “There is no excuse to offer for putting people on a job that they know not how to do. Most so-called ‘goofing off’—somebody seems to be lazy, doesn’t seem to care—that person is almost always in the wrong job, or has very poor management.” It is the responsibility of management to discover the inhibitors that prevent workers from taking pride in their jobs. From an information technology point of view, development often views the job of quality to be the QA department’s responsibility. QA should be very aggressive as quality leaders and point out that quality is everyone’s responsibility.

To apply this point, an information technology quality assurance organization can do the following:

1. ■ Take the time to train a developer on how to unit test code effectively if an excessive number of defects in his or her code are discovered by QA testing.

2. ■ Improve supervision, which is the responsibility of management.

3. ■ Allow the project leader to have more time to help people on the job.

4. ■ Use statistical methods to indicate where there are faults.

Point 8: Drive Out Fear

There is often no incentive for problem solving. Suggesting new ideas is too risky. People are afraid of losing their raises, promotions, or jobs. As Deming points out, “Fear takes a horrible toll. Fear is all around, robbing people of their pride, hurting them, robbing them of a chance to contribute to the company. It is unbelievable what happens when you unloose fear.” A common problem is the fear of inspections.

To apply this point, an information technology quality assurance organization can do the following:

1. ■ Promote the idea that quality is goodness and should be rewarded, and promote any new ideas to improve quality.

2. ■ Prior to a structured walkthrough, inspection, or JAD session, make sure everyone understands the ground rules; promote an “egoless” environment.

3. ■ Periodically schedule a “Quality Day” in which quality improvement ideas are openly shared.

Point 9: Break Down Barriers between Staff Areas

There are numerous problems when departments have different goals and do not work as a team to solve problems, set policies, or define new directions. As Deming points out, “People can work superbly in their respective departments, but if their goals are in conflict, they can ruin the company. It is better to have teamwork, working for the company.”

To apply this point, an information technology quality assurance organization can do the following:

1. ■ Promote the need for the quality assurance and other departments (particularly development) to work closely together; QA should be viewed as the “good guys” trying to make the software products the best in the world.

2. ■ Point out that a defect discovered before production is one that will not be discovered by end users.

Point 10: Eliminate Slogans, Exhortations, and Targets for the Workforce

As Deming points out, “Slogans never helped anybody do a good job. They generate frustration and resentment.” Slogans such as “Zero Defects” or “Do It Right the First Time” are fine on the surface. The problem is that they are viewed as signals that management does not understand employees’ problems, or care. There is a common practice of setting goals without describing how they are going to be accomplished.

To apply this point, an information technology quality assurance organization can do the following:

1. ■ Encourage management to avoid the use of slogans.

2. ■ Rather than generate slogans, develop and document quality standards, procedures, and processes that the rest of the organization can use to help maximize quality.

Point 11: Eliminate Numerical Goals

As Deming points out, “Quotas or other work standards, such as measured day work or rates, impede quality perhaps more than any other single working condition. As work standards are generally used, they guarantee inefficiency and high costs.” A proper work standard would define what is and is not acceptable in terms of quality.

To apply this point, an information technology quality assurance organization can do the following:

1. ■ Look not just at the numbers, but look carefully at the quality standards.

2. ■ Avoid formally publicizing defect rates by individual or department.

3. ■ Work with the development organization to define quality standards and procedures to improve quality.

4. ■ When there are specific quality issues, have the department manager address them informally.

Point 12: Remove Barriers to Pride of Workmanship

People are regarded as a commodity, to be used as needed. If not needed, they are returned to the market. Managers cope with many problems, but tend to shy away from people problems. They often form “Quality Control Circles,” but this is often a way for a manager to pretend to be doing something about a problem. Management seldom invests employees with any authority, nor does it act upon their recommendations.

To apply this point, an information technology quality assurance organization can do the following:

1. ■ Instill an image that quality is their deliverable and is a very valuable commodity.

2. ■ Delegate responsibility to the staff to seek out quality and do whatever it takes to accomplish it.

Point 13: Institute a Vigorous Program of Education and Retraining

People must acquire new knowledge and skills. Education and retraining are an investment in people, which is required for long-term planning. Education and training must fit people into new jobs and responsibilities.

To apply this point, an information technology quality assurance organization can do the following:

1. ■ Encourage quality staff to constantly increase their knowledge of quality and testing techniques by attending seminars and classes.

2. ■ Reward staff for creating new seminars and special interest groups.

3. ■ Retrain individuals in new quality skills.

Point 14: Take Action to Accomplish the Transformation

Top management needs to push these 13 points. Every employee, including managers, should acquire a precise idea of how to improve quality continually, but the initiative must come from top management. The following discusses a process that can be used to apply Deming’s Point 14. It is also the process that is constantly reinforced in this text to improve software testing processes.