Why Information Literacy?

It is widely acknowledged that the Industrial Age is over, and we are now in the Information Age. Without information, most organizations cannot succeed. Therefore, it is important that governments, organizations and individuals be information-literate. It was stated at the 32nd UNESCO General Conference Roundtable Discussion:

Access is not enough: skills to effectively analyze and use information are also needed. The Information Age could as accurately be called the Misinformation Age: in addition to giving legitimate information providers more opportunities to share ideas, opportunities for charlatans have also increased. Additionally, thanks to the phenomenon known as the Information Explosion, it is nearly impossible to keep pace with all available information. Information literacy helps individuals to identify useful information and coexist with its multitudes.

Roles

This book universally considers the roles of Seeker and Provider, and their relationships with information and one another. Although information is often the focus in information literacy study, it is seekers and providers who drive it. Without human interest information is useless. When roles and relationships are considered, usually the focus is on the seeker. This book gives them equal attention.

Seekers pursue information and information literacy; providers provide information and facilitate information literacy. Providing information and facilitating information literacy are two different relationships. For example, those who work in the library do not always answer questions with finite information: they also instruct seekers on how to do research for themselves. Although the precise information the seeker imagines might not be possible to provide, an environment conducive to information literacy can be. For example, a manager may not be able to give a subordinate a direct answer to every particular work problem that arises; however, he or she can foster a climate conducive to information literacy that enables the person to do their work effectively.

Often seekers and providers are unaware of their roles, or that they need to pursue information literacy (or have even heard of the term). Additionally, the roles of seeker and provider are not static. For example, during a medical examination, a doctor can be a provider then a seeker or both simultaneously.

This book identifies only some of the relationships by considering seven societal sectors: business, health care, media, government, justice, defense and education. The categories are broad and their boundaries in information literacy not always clear; however, they offer familiar, important and stimulating contexts for anyone seeking to increase information literacy and awareness of it in society. As roles and relationships rely on individuals, and individuals are influenced by different cultures, this book also considers the information literacy perspectives of people from different parts of the world.

Before we consider their perspectives, however, it is helpful to first establish and understand some points about information literacy.

History

Many cite the works of Paul Zurkowski and Lee Burchinal in the 1970s as the first to formally recognize modern information literacy. Whereas Zurkowski referred to information in general society, Burchinal focussed on education. Both identified the Information Explosion as a global phenomenon that is both beneficial and overwhelming. The overwhelming aspect of it was attributed to failings in information infrastructures. Both agreed that organizations and individuals needed new resources and skills to be successful, and publicly coined the term ‘information literate’ to label such success. Key here was the notion that retrieval was not the only component of information literacy, but also thinking or problem-solving skills.²

Diane Lee observed a shift when ‘library literacy’ was distinguished from ‘information literacy’ in the 1980s.³ Despite Zurkowski’s application of the term to overall society, information literacy was still most closely associated with higher education, especially academic libraries.

The American Library Association (ALA) Presidential Committee defined information, and developed competencies for information literacy in 1989; these competencies have set the tone for the present. Of considerable use was the formation of the National Forum on Information Literacy in 1990, a coalition of more than 90 international organizations that globally monitor and facilitate information literacy in response to the ALA competencies.

Definition

There are many definitions available, but most are more descriptions of what an information-literate individual is capable of. Professional organizations, schools and individuals have all provided their own thoughts. Below are just a few:

This is a small sample; a Google search for ‘def: information literacy’ provides hundreds of definitions and descriptions. Most of them acknowledge four common components: Identify, Locate, Analyze, Use. Rather than refer to a specific definition throughout this book, I will discuss information literacy in terms of these components.

The four components

Information literacy is both process and state of mind. As process it is usually non-linear; as state it is subjective to individual and topic. Therefore, roles and relationships between information seekers, providers and the information itself all decide information literacy at a given time. However, it is useful to understand the four components that comprise it as a process.

Research, information and information literacy

When information literacy is discussed, it is usually in a university setting during a library instruction class, the point of which is to teach students how to undertake better research. Since information literacy’s rise to prominence, it and research are often synonymously referred to and considered. They have formed an interdependent relationship in education: to be information literate a person must do research; for research to be successful, the researcher must have attained information literacy.

So, is information literacy dependent on research? In short, yes. However, research is not dependent on information literacy. To avoid confusion, this book defines information literacy in terms of its four components; however, research is any sort of conscious effort to find something. I will not delve into the narrower distinctions made by scientists and other professionals (e.g. ‘research’ is proving something as opposed to a ‘review’ that helps a person learn). For this book, research is research. Regardless of whether a person wants to prove or learn something, they must find information about it. To become information literate, however, a seeker must have learned something by connecting what was found from the research. It is more a matter of personal connection than proof or disproof of a theory.

Within the information literacy process then, research as expressed here can be present in all four components, and is definitely the major part of Locate. However, information literacy does not end with research: it allows for a more effective approach to it, and is more holistic and individual. I tell students: ‘Anybody can do research. As soon as a seeker steps into a library to find something, and looks on a shelf, technically they did research.’ There is no right or wrong way of doing it (but rather effective as opposed to ineffective ways); information literacy, however, is more complex and requires more on the part of the seeker.

Understanding what ‘sources’, ‘data’ or ‘information’ is available is also important. Sometimes these words are distinguished from one another (e.g. ‘data’ being raw as opposed to more refined ‘information’). However, in the scope of information literacy, such distinctions, like the ‘research’ as opposed to ‘review’ terms, are irrelevant. Whether it is a ‘scholarly source’ as opposed to ‘raw numerical data’, it is all information which needs to be accounted for. Interesting and extremely relevant to this book, though, are associations with research and information in terms of primary, secondary and tertiary distinctions. My experience is that these are not consistently applied. For example, primary for some means ‘scholarly’ whereas secondary is ‘less scholarly’.

Rather than qualitative associations, this book bases primary, secondary and tertiary on the information’s relationship with the seeker. Therefore, primary information is that which the seeker Locates first-hand. Its analysis, at least in terms of the seeker’s Use, is solely the seeker’s. For example, an undergraduate college student Identifies the following topic, ‘Current University of Greenwich Student Perceptions of the Cutty Sark’, and distributes a survey to University of Greenwich students. Their responses provide first-hand information (i.e. primary) relative to the student’s topic. By contrast, an article in a peer-reviewed journal about it, although probably more comprehensive and scholarly, is secondary due to the student’s relationship with the information on which the article rests – the author arranged and considered it, not the student. Tertiary, or third hand, information is a typical encyclopedia or handbook. However, if the student’s topic was ‘An Evaluation of Encyclopedias’ then reviewing one would make it primary for that person’s Use. Determining source distinction depends upon the seeker’s relationship with the information on which the source rests (sometimes sources and information are one), and also the topic.

I find the relationship distinction more consistent and definitive than qualitative distinctions. Consistent definition is important, not only for those who facilitate information literacy but also for those who pursue it. A person should understand during Identify what type of source he or she wants or Locates. ‘Must I have primary information?’ If yes, then library resources more than likely are not an option other than to learn more about the topic or provide examples of how others pursued it. Seekers should also understand during Analyze and Use their relationship with the information. For Analyze, this relationship sheds additional light on quality issues and relevance; it is also particularly important if Use amounts to dissemination. The person to whom the information is disseminated should understand its relation to the person who provided it (a good argument for citation).

Which is better, primary or secondary information? This is where qualities such as peer-review enter. The quality of a primary relationship depends upon the seeker: his or her experience, intelligence, honesty, health and credentials determine how effectively he or she uses the information. Secondary and tertiary information also depend upon the seeker, but especially the author who interpreted the information before providing it. If the person responsible is deemed expert in their field, then the source for which they are responsible will probably be of higher quality than an amateur’s work.

Primary sources are indeed a part of information literacy, and not just that which resides in archives. As is the case with Locate compared with the other components, the focus of those who facilitate information literacy seems to be secondary information and research. There are several reasons for this: (1) primary sources of information differ significantly from topic to topic and individual to individual (and even with the same topics and individuals); and (2) there are a plethora of different topics and information sources that are possible in primary. By contrast, secondary is far more stable and consistent in terms of the resources and sources used, and the people pursuing information literacy. However, I believe equal emphasis must be paid to primary; the relationships and sectors described in this book depend on it. Although accommodating this is challenging, it is also pivotal to seeking, providing and facilitating.

Chapter arrangement

The following chapters are arranged by these seven sectors: Business, Health Care, Media, Government, Justice, Defense and Education. Arrangement within the chapters is by the Seeker and Provider roles, coupled with the major roles that shape the particular sector (e.g. in the chapter on business, the four main sections are Buyer as Seeker, Buyer as Provider, Seller as Seeker and Seller as Provider). Consideration of these roles includes their relationships with information literacy and each other, and interviews with real people who engage the process.

Each chapter concludes with its own Issues and Tips sections. Issues consider topics or circumstances within that sector that impact an individual’s pursuit of information literacy, while Tips focus on fundamental ideas or perspectives that can help those who seek or provide information literacy better fulfill their roles. There are no specific Locate tips for secondary research: there are already thousands of articles, books and websites available on that subject. In addition, the tools themselves used for Locate increasingly offer inventive tutorials and help screens. The Conclusion considers general ideas about information literacy that transcend the sectors, and offers suggestions for facilitating and attaining it.