Chapter 3

BUILDING STRONG TEAMS

Managers cannot do all the work of their teams; if they could, there would be no need for teams. Even the 19th century industrialist Andrew Carnegie knew that, as much as he would have liked to do everything himself, he needed others. One of the project manager’s or leader’s key responsibilities in both the federal government and the private sector is to ensure that team members work well with each other and are able to perform their individual jobs.

TEAM TYPES AND STRUCTURES

The particular structure of the team will depend on the task, the organization or agency, and the people available (see Figure 3-1). The ideal staffing for a task or project simply may not be possible.

One immediate issue is team size. A small team will generally be easier to manage effectively because the project manager will be able to get to know team members better. In the initial phase of the project, the manager will be seeking team member “buy-in” to the project’s goals and objectives. With fewer team members, the manager may be able to link team goals to individual goals more effectively.

Technical project realities may necessitate a large team, which is by definition more complicated to manage: the more people, the more possible interrelationships. As the number of team members expands arithmetically, the number of possible interrelationships expands geometrically, creating more and more relationships and therefore potential complications.

The project manager has to take the “math” of interrelationships and communication into account when forming the team. First and foremost, managers have to consider whether they can handle a large team. Will the project manager be spending so much time managing interrelationships and communication that there will be little time left to manage the project? Forming project subteams around major tasks is an effective method for harnessing large teams, with the managers of those subteams reporting directly to the overall project manager. Selecting the right team type or structure is an important consideration for the project manager.

Most projects use a matrix team construct, employing a cross-functional team comprising resources temporarily assigned from other parts of the organization. Many organizations find that this structure promotes cross-functional solutions and enhances professional growth opportunities. As with any construct, however, the matrix team has its challenges. Project staff who are “borrowed” for the project have to answer to multiple managers, work with new team members, and balance the work of the project with their “day job.” For project managers, getting the right personnel resources when they’re needed from other units in the organization can be a real challenge. On the flip side, the resource’s functional (or line) managers often lament the loss of control over their direct reports’ assignments and professional development.

While the matrix team is common for federal projects, two other team structures seen with growing frequency in the federal environment are the integrated project team and the virtual team. Each offers unique contributions to success in an increasingly complex project environment.

Integrated Project Team

Use of an integrated project team (IPT) is growing across civilian federal organizations, mirroring the growing complexity of projects in the federal government. Project managers using an IPT structure will need to advance their fundamental skills as they build new competencies to be successful in the evolving project management environment.

IPTs can be formed at two “levels”: project-based, with representation from all teams responsible for the execution of a project or program; and functionally based, with representation from all key stakeholder groups. The Department of Energy (DOE), in Order 413.3A, adopted a project-based approach, defining IPTs as “cross-functional groups of individuals organized for the specific purpose of delivering a project to an external or internal customer.”¹ DOE’s related guidance on IPTs aptly identifies them as “the crossroads where the technical, management, budgetary, safety, and security meet.”²

DOE decided that “all acquisition programs and projects shall use an integrated project team approach to managing projects.” DOE promoted IPTs as the “core of project management implementation,” coordinating all essential acquisition activities “through the use of multi-disciplined teams, from requirements definition through production, fielding/deployment, and operational support in order to optimize design, manufacturing, business, and supportability processes.”³ The idea of the IPT is to integrate and coordinate activities and to maximize overall project performance rather than performance in particular functional areas.

The IPT is intended to be flexible; thus, DOE’s regulations did not call for specific team membership and organization. DOE did, however, remind project and IPT managers of three basic core elements: “(1) the PD [project director] is in charge of their own project; (2) IPTs are responsible to and empowered by the PD; and (3) communication between IPTs, the PD, the Program Manager and all levels of acquisition is encouraged to exchange information, build trust, and resolve issues—ideally at the lowest possible level.”⁴

Virtual Team

A virtual team comprises members “linked via the Internet or media channels to each other and various project partners, such as contractors, customers, and regulators. Although physically separated, technology links these individuals so they can share information and operate as a unified project team.”⁵ Because large projects and the federal agencies that execute them tend to be geographically dispersed, virtual teams are being relied on increasingly. On the positive side, day-to-day annoyances and distractions may be minimized with a virtual team. But how, for example, can meetings be scheduled in different time zones? What is lost when face-to-face contact is not possible? In addressing issues like this, the project manager’s dual goal is to design and structure the team well and to get the team to function well.

Project managers must be able to adapt to working in a virtual environment. Important skills and actions include the following:

   •   Coaching and managing performance without the traditional forms of feedback.

   •   Selecting and appropriately using the right communication and collaboration technologies.

   •   Leading in a cross-cultural environment by understanding the impact of various team members’ cultural characteristics on the virtual team setting. The relationship between the project organization’s culture and the deployment of virtual teams should also be considered.

   •   Facilitating team members’ transition into the virtual work environment. Work standards will likely be more complex than those in a conventional office.

   •   Building and maintaining trust, to an even greater degree than on a conventional team. The initial project buy-in will have to include work methods as well as project goals.

   •   Networking across standard organizational and hierarchical boundaries. The result may be breaking through organizational boundaries and increasing cross-departmental collaboration.

   •   Developing and adapting organizational processes to meet the expanded demands of the team.⁶ One method to consider is allowing virtual team members to determine their own reporting schedules and methods.⁷ Before doing so, however, project managers must obtain (or validate that they have) the necessary authority to make process changes. Rejected process changes can result in a loss of credibility.

   •   Communicating the value of the virtual team to stakeholders while communicating the value of the project itself.

ESTABLISHING THE PROJECT TEAM

Teamwork can be defined as a “cooperative effort by the members of a group or team to achieve a common goal.”⁸ In general, team members contribute to project success by bringing different and complementary skills to the effort to achieve project goals. One of the project manager’s critical first tasks is to choose the personnel best suited for the task and to get them to “sign on” to the task, that is, to make the project’s goals their goals.

The first step, after the project itself is created, is to select and establish the team. The project manager may not have the option to fully determine who will join the team and may have to work with staff already on hand. Ideally, the project manager should be able to select individuals who have the technical skills to contribute to the team and who can work well with each other. Highly skilled prima donnas may have skills that contribute to the general work of an agency, but they are best suited to work on projects that can be done independently.

Interestingly, the characteristics of a good team member are also the characteristics of a good project manager. The team will reflect the leader who formed the team.

Don’t forget that the project manager is also a member of the team. The project manager will have to look for people with complementary strengths, people who bring skills that the project manager might lack. Team assignments should include backups for key roles, including that of project manager. This calls for some duplication of skills, as well as meeting the fundamental objective of obtaining team members with complementary skills. Also, project managers must set an example through their own actions, demonstrating behavior consistent with the statements and policies they expect others to follow. A particular job for project managers is to run political interference for team members, to free them from bureaucratic constraints to enable them to do their jobs. The team leader, to use an analogy, has to be the lightning rod for the team.

Set Team Rules

Perhaps the best first step in establishing a project team is to develop clear rules of engagement for the team. The “ground rules” of the project should support an effective project environment. Effective projects maintain a culture of their own, and these rules will help create a project culture quickly. Sample ground rules include the following:

   •   Everyone has an equal opportunity to influence the final outcome. The project manager must protect the “playing field” with this rule of engagement. The culture and progress of the project depend on honest, vigorous debate. This rule of engagement does not mean that everyone has an equal vote, but that all participants should enthusiastically participate in the process. Team member roles will determine who gets to vote on particular matters.

   •   Issues get resolved through predefined channels. Issue resolution is most often ignored on projects because issues tend to cause discomfort. Effective issue resolution requires an established escalation process. This rule is intended to foster team cohesion and growth though effective communication and not meant to emphasize the “chain of command.”

   •   Individuals are accountable. Projects are premised on people following through on commitments. Team members must clearly understand that they are accountable for results and their own participation.

   •   Team members listen to each other. Projects are energetic places, where new ideas and innovations are debated every day. In this exciting atmosphere, it is easy to adopt your own line of thinking and stop hearing the other ideas in the room. Effective project managers and stakeholders maintain the humility of listening first.

Define Roles and Responsibilities

Providing clear definitions of team members’ roles and responsibilities, even generic definitions, establishes a framework for the project manager to set expectations and to foster teamwork and team building. The roles included on a given project team and the number of people filling those roles depend on a number of project variables, including size, scope, complexity, and budget. Project managers on larger efforts may consider commissioning a project “core team” composed of team members representing key task or functional roles. Members of the core team form the standing group that works most directly for and with the project manager.

Common roles on projects include the following, all or some of which may serve on a core team:

   •   Executive sponsor. This is a critical role on any project. The executive sponsor must provide leadership in support of the project’s vision and goals. The executive sponsor needs to actively and visibly promote the project, obtaining the resources required and removing obstacles to successfully achieving the project objectives. A project with multiple sponsors may establish an advisory board comprising executives from organizations with a significant stake in the project’s outcome.

   •   Project director. On larger projects, the project director may perform some of the responsibilities usually performed by the executive sponsor. In organizations where the executive sponsor supports many projects, the project director is the conduit for communication, status, and issue escalation between the sponsor and the project manager.

   •   Project manager. In the context of the core team, the project manager may need to play the role of facilitator, serving in an impartial role in core team meetings and other stakeholder interactions.

   •   Business expert. The primary responsibility of the business expert is to make sure that the organization’s business interests are appropriately represented. The business expert typically serves as the translator between the business’ interest and any technology-based project products or outcomes. Depending on the scale and scope of the project, the team may include one or more business experts. This core team member actively participates in the design and development of the project’s outcomes, whether they are processes, policies, programs, or technology. The business expert is also often responsible for protecting or projecting the interests of the project’s ultimate customers.

   •   IT expert. The IT expert on the project core team provides insight into the options and risks associated with possible technological solutions. Effective IT experts are able to translate technical issues and risks into plain English for the project manager, project team, and key stakeholders. For projects with IT vendors, the IT expert represents the government’s interests and provides independent and objective evaluation and validation of each vendor’s deliverables and final product.

   •   Financial/budget expert. Often overlooked on the project core teams, the financial/budget expert can provide the project manager and executive sponsor critical analysis of financial data, tracking actual costs against the budget. Early in the project’s life, this team member can provide the financial justifications as part of the business case. The financial expert can also provide an early warning of cost overruns and determine impacts and “what-ifs” related to possible cuts to the project budget.

   •   Contract specialist. The growing emphasis in the federal government on acquisition and contract management makes the contract specialist a potential key player on a project core team and an important asset to the project manager. This role can include evaluating vendor performance and tracking compliance with contract terms and conditions, alerting the project manager to any deficiencies before minor issues become front-page news.

   •   Subject matter experts (SMEs). Throughout the life of any project, experts from a wide array of specialties may be needed. Their tenure on the project may be only as long as it takes to answer a specific question or, if they represent a unique specialty that is required for the project, the entire project lifecycle. The project manager should work with the business and IT experts to identify the need for SMEs as early in the project as possible so these experts will be available when needed.

DEVELOPING THE PROJECT TEAM

Teams, like people, go through various growth stages. The manager has to take the stages of team development and the needs of individual members into account when forming the team. Bruce Tuckman’s seminal group theory identifies those stages as forming, storming, norming, performing, and adjourning.⁹ Well known for its simplicity, this theory has been taught widely in project management (and human resource development) courses since it was first set forth over 40 years ago.

Table 3-1 describes actions and behaviors of the project manager and team members across the various project and team development phases. Suggested project manager actions for successfully developing a team are highlighted.

In fostering the team’s development, the project manager should keep in mind three facets of members’ needs: physical, professional, and personal. Simply stated, the team members should have an appropriate physical space conducive to work effectively and the necessary tools to do their jobs. In the case of virtual teams, the project manager should make sure that the critical technology is in place and is working to support the team’s efforts across geographical areas and time zones.

Professional growth on the job is a key facet of an individual’s full participation on a team. Challenging and interesting work, with commensurate support and training, will motivate team members and return dividends to the project in terms of greater commitment and loyalty to the project and higher-quality results. The personal facet refers to the project manager’s responsibility to support each team member’s job satisfaction and to foster a positive team environment.

TABLE 3-1 Stages of Team Development
Project Phase and Key Management Tasks	Team Stages and Team Behaviors	PM Actions
Initiation – Project manager identifies, selects, or recruits team members and defines roles and responsibilities.	Forming –Team defines purpose, composition, leadership patterns, and life span.	Implement Structure – Organize and direct work, and define team members’ roles and responsibilities; get them off to an efficient start.
Planning – Project manager and team collaborate on developing key project management deliverables and establishing the appropriate project framework.	Storming – Team members experience “natural” conflict and tension as they work to establish and understand their roles.	Coach – Set high standards and clarify expectations, working collaboratively with the team; coach individuals on team participation.
Early Implementation – Negotiate changes and refinements to the project plan; develop project details.	Norming – Team members achieve greater levels of openness, trust, and confidence in each other and the group’s ability to succeed.	Encourage “Ownership” – Empower team members to structure work and find ways to collaborate and solve problems independent from the project manager.
Implementation – Execution of project plan begins. Project manager’s role shifts toward coordinating and integrating the project tasks.	Performing – Team has “matured” and is operating efficiently; project execution is smooth. In some cases, teams will achieve the status of “high performing” by becoming self-managing and self-motivating.	Delegate, Coordinate, and Integrate – Assign task responsibilities and ownership. Coordinate subteam activities and integrate project with internal and external elements.
Closeout – Project manager performs administrative wrap-up of the project. Assists or manages the reassignment of team members, as appropriate.	Adjourning – Team is anxious over the end of project and the uncertainty of next assignments.	Coaching – Conduct formal project closure for the group, celebrating success. Provide feedback on team members’ performance and promote next project.

MANAGING THE PROJECT TEAM

Specific methods for managing project teams will be driven by the unique circumstances of the project. Methods are important, but they are secondary to basic leadership, management, and communications principles. Two key aspects of managing a project team are initiating the team and responding when the team runs into trouble. Knowing when a team isn’t performing optimally or is regressing to a previous developmental stage is a critical skill for the project manager, as is seeking help before the situation deteriorates.

WORKING WITH CONTRACTORS

Project managers in the federal government often have to manage or work with outside contractors. The project manager must understand the contract as it relates to the project, particularly the timing and quality of deliverables. The project manager also has to keep in mind that contractors are from the private sector, where they may be accustomed to working in less procedurally restrained environments. In most cases, project managers will be able to rely on their organization’s contract specialists or, if their project is large enough, team members with contract management responsibilities, to be the primary interface with contractor personnel (e.g., contracting officer’s technical representative, or COTR). To the degree the project manager can focus on results rather than procedures, this will ease working with outside contractors.

CHARACTERISTICS OF SUCCESSFUL TEAMS

A strong project team is the foundation of most successful projects. Selecting the right team structure provides the appropriate framework for the team to form and effectively execute the project. Employing integrated project teams and virtual teams, both growing trends in the federal government, can provide project managers an effective structure for larger, more complex projects. Project managers who recognize the importance of the team and foster an effective group dynamic as well as each team member’s individual goals will see dividends for their efforts in the form of loyalty and commitment.

Although every team has its own way of operating, successful teams seem to share ten key characteristics:

1.    Clearly defined project goals. Clear goals enable team members to understand why they are doing their tasks and provide meaning to their work. Clear goals also help team members ensure that their work is meeting the project’s ultimate goals and enable them to make any needed corrections without always having to consult with the project leader.

2.    Clearly defined roles. Clearly defined roles enable team members to meet their responsibilities. When team members know what is expected of them and they are able to meet responsibilities, they will have opportunities for growth and expanded responsibilities.

3.    Open and clear communication. Clear communication is essential at all stages of the project. The team needs to remain informed. The leader needs information to monitor progress and make any necessary adjustments, as well as to convey information to upper management and other stakeholders.

4.    Effective decision-making. Decisions should be based on as much current information as possible, using a variety of methods.

5.    Balanced participation. All team members participate in and contribute to the work of the team, not just their own tasks. The leader needs to encourage such balanced participation.

6.    Valued diversity. Team members are valued for what they can uniquely bring to the team.

7.    Managed conflict. Diversity of opinions is also important to a project team. Managed conflict means that different options are discussed and the best solution is arrived at— whether it is a compromise or a particular viewpoint. Managed conflict also means that problems are addressed, not avoided.

8.    Positive environment. The feeling that each member of the team is valued and has something to contribute creates a positive environment. This climate of trust among members of the team, including the project manager, is critical to project success. Team members need to know that their colleagues can be depended on to do their jobs—that they are both willing and able.

9.    Cooperative relations. A team is more than just a collection of individuals. Team members have to be willing to work with each other.

10.  Participative leaders. The leader shares responsibility and glory when things work out—and takes the heat when things don’t.

The more these characteristics are present, the greater the opportunity to build and maintain a successful project team.

NOTE

1.    “Integrated Project Teams Guide for Use with DOE O 413.3A,” U.S. Department of Energy, Washington, DC, September 24, 2008, pp. 1–2.

2.    “Integrated Project Teams Guide for Use with DOE O 413.3A.”

3.    Office of Engineering and Construction Management, U.S. Department of Energy, Project Management Practices, Rev E, June 2003, Integrated Project Teams, Office of Management, Budget and Evaluation.

4.    Ibid.

5.    David I. Cleland and Lewis R. Ireland, Project Management: Strategic Design and Implementation (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2008), p. 427.

6.    Deborah L. Duarte and Nancy Tennant Snyder, Virtual Team Critical Success Factors (Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, 2003) pp. 289–290.

7.    Terrence L. Gargiulo, “The Top Ten Strategies for Managers of Mobile Workers: Surviving and Thriving in the Emerging Mobile Workforce,” Makingstories.net, www.scribd.com/doc/8958995/THE-TOP-TEN-STRATEGIES-FOR-MANAGERS-OF-MOBILE-WORKERS-Surviving-and-Thriving-in-the-Emerging-Mobile-Workforce (accessed April 2013).

8.    “Teamwork,” Answers.com, 2009, www.answers.com/topic/teamwork (accessed April 2013).

9.    Bruce W. Tuckman, “Developmental sequence in small groups,” Psychological Bulletin 63, 384–399. Reprinted in Group Facilitation: A Research and Applications Journal, Number 3, Spring 2001.