Index
Note: Page numbers with “f” denote figures; “t” tables; and “b” boxes.
A
Acceleration
ground run distance estimation with,
802–803
thrust-to-weight ratios,
799
placement and shape,
732f
drag coefficients for canopy styles,
728,
729f
due to compressibility effects,
730
cooling drag coefficient,
714
idealization of engine installation,
714f
component contribution,
710t
twin-engine business jet,
710
increase of C
Dmin due to flaps,
725–726
drag correction for cockpit windows,
726
drag of blunt ordinary and undercut,
727,
728f
drag of conventional cockpit windows,
727
drag of various geometry
critical Reynolds number,
733
2D cross-section, 3D drag of,
733–734
2D drag coefficient,
733f
special NACA-designed floats,
724
geometric shape of protrusions,
708
of gun ports in airplane nose,
736
landing gear drag
of fixed landing gear struts with tires,
718–722
of retractable landing gear,
722–723
of tires with wheel fairings,
718
landing gear pant fairings,
715–718
lift-induced drag corrections
pressure difference,
737f
vortex core location,
738f
total drag force evaluation,
735
of sanded walkway on wing,
736
of streamlined external fuel tanks,
736,
736f
consequence of longitudinal stability,
711
wing-horizontal tail combination,
711
wing-horizontal tail-thrustline combination,
712
windmilling propellers,
711
wing-like surface drag,
715
Adiabatic compression,
192,
217
Advisory circular (AC),
15
Aileron
maximizing responsiveness,
962
steady-state roll rate estimation,
960
impact on flow field,
950f
Aircraft conceptual design algorithm,
15
modern spreadsheet software,
16
organizational hierarchy of spreadsheet,
18f
tail sizing worksheet,
16
Aircraft design process,
11
elementary outline,
11,
12f
regulatory concepts,
13–15
airworthiness directives,
14
maintenance requirements,
14
parts manufacturer approval,
15
special airworthiness certificate,
14
standard airworthiness certificate,
14
supplemental type certificate,
14
technical standard order,
15
technical standard order authorization,
15
Aircraft development cost,
36
certify, total cost to,
46
development support, total cost of,
45
engineering, total cost of,
45
engineering man-hours,
44–45
flight test operations, total cost of,
45
manufacturing, total cost of,
45
manufacturing labor man-hours,
45
materials, total cost of,
45–46
quality control, total cost of,
45
retractable landing gear cost,
46
tooling, total cost of,
45
break-even analysis,
43,
44b
development support, total cost of,
39–40
engineering, total cost of,
39
engineering man-hours,
37–38
flight test operations, total cost of,
40
manufacturing, total cost of,
40
manufacturing labor man-hours,
38–39
materials, total cost of,
40
product liability costs,
37
quality Control, total cost of,
40
retractable landing gear cost,
41
tooling, total cost of,
40
project cost analysis,
37t
depends on experience effectiveness,
36–37,
36f
experience effectiveness adjustment factor,
36
Airfoil cross-sectional area,
308–309
Airfoil direct design,
256
Airfoil inverse design,
256
Airfoil selection matrix,
289
critical Mach number,
289
impact on flow separation,
289
impact on longitudinal trim,
289
impact on maximum lift and stall handling,
289
impact on structural depth,
289–290
impact on wing-fuselage juncture,
289
NACA recommended criteria,
294
target zero-lift AOA evaluation,
290
on McDonnell-Douglas A-4 Skyhawk,
414f
form factors for airship hulls,
703–708
Airspeed effect on turbofan thrust,
201–202
Airspeed effect on turbojet thrust,
200
Airspeed effect on turboprop thrust,
198–199
Airspeed indicator (ASI),
768
Airworthiness Directive (AD),
14
Altitude
absolute/service ceiling,
16
thrust as function of,
28
Altitude effect on piston engine power,
192–193
altitude impact on engine,
194
altitude-dependency model,
193
Gagg and Ferrar model,
193
Ideal manifold pressure,
194
initial pressure in cylinders,
193
Altitude effect on turbofan thrust,
201–202
Altitude effect on turbojet thrust,
200
Altitude effect on turboprop thrust,
198–199
applications in GA aircraft,
106t
sheet metal thicknesses for,
106t
airspeed, lift coefficient and,
344
for design lift coefficient,
343
for maximum lift coefficient,
343
movement of transition points with,
677f
non-linear lift curve,
343
Angle-of-glide (
AOG),
927
Angle-of-incidence (
AOI),
467
lift coefficient value effect,
241
symmetrical airfoil at,
127
Approach for landing,
939
Atmosphere, chemical composition,
985–986
Atmosphere, formation of,
985
Atmosphere, layer classification,
986
formulas for standard atmosphere,
767
standard properties,
766t
atmospheric pressure and density for altitudes,
764,
989
temperature constants in troposphere,
764t
viscosity
Atmospheric pressure, density, temperature,
763–764
B
empirical expression,
796
Best angle-of-climb airspeed,
746,
828
Best glide
best glide speed comparison,
877
requirement for maximum range,
875–876
for propeller-powered airplane,
834
Best rate-of-climb airspeed,
746
for propeller-powered aircraft,
867
for selected classes of aircraft,
842,
842t
compressibility corrections,
654
formulation
differential lift and drag forces,
641
lift coefficient of element airfoil,
641
next value calculation,
652
propeller induced velocity,
656
Blended wing-body aircraft (BWB),
342
Boundary layer
airfoil selection effect,
373
nature of fluid flow,
248f
skin friction coefficient,
540
theoretical extent of,
374f
nature of fluid flow,
248f
skin friction coefficient,
542
Break-even analysis,
43,
44f
Breguet endurance equation,
898
Breguet range equation,
897
C
relative magnitude of,
262
Canonical pressure coefficient,
241–242
Center of gravity (CG),
46,
84,
164
travel during flight,
972
Certification
basis for classes of aircraft,
3t
requirements for GA aircraft,
936
Certification Standard (CS), ,
13
T/W for desired rate of,
58–59
extracting C
Dmin using,
746
spreadsheet to estimating,
840f
in large business jet,
536f
typical seating for,
535f
Coefficient of drag
Commercial aircraft
turboprops and turbofans for,
183
Commercial aviation regulations, ,
78,
168
Composite images,
aircraft construction methodologies,
114
glass transition temperature,
113
sandwich core materials,
113
Compressibility effect,
278,
668
for F-104 Starfighter,
468
on lift and drag exemplified,
279
Compressible Bernoulli equation,
219,
246
Computational fluid dynamics (CFD),
27–28
Kutta-Joukowski theorem use in,
247
Prandtl-Betz Integration,
690
Conceptual design,
10,
15
algorithm for GA aircraft,
16
of propeller-powered aircraft,
608
Configuration layout
configuration selection matrix,
92–93
landing gear configurations,
91–92
propeller configuration,
89,
89f
vertical wing location,
82–86
Boeing 737–800 in landing configuration,
83f
Consolidated PBY-5 Catalina,
85f
impact on airframe design,
84–85
operational characteristics,
85
properties of aircraft,
83t
wing configuration,
86,
86f
wing structural configuration,
87–88
cantilever or braced with struts,
88f
shear and moment diagrams,
88f
Constant altitude/constant attitude,
901–902
Constant chord planform (Hershey bar),
303
propeller efficiency table for,
630f
section view of inside,
595f
Constraint analysis,
56–57
general methodology,
58–63
cruise airspeed, T/W for desired,
59
level constant-velocity turn, T/W for,
58
rate of climb, T/W for desired,
58–59
service ceiling, T/W for,
59
specific energy level, T/W for desired,
58
T-O distance, T/W for desired,
59
optimum design points,
58
typical design space,
57f
C
Lmax for desired stalling speed,
66
Consumer Price Index (CPI),
37
Control surface
fabrication and installation of,
126–127
control surface hinge moments,
948–949
pitch control fundamentals,
962–964
yaw control fundamentals,
964
Control system
side-effects on swept wings,
951
Control system harmony,
968
Control system jamming,
970
of pusher configurations,
213
methods,
for airfoil selection,
289
NACA 6-series airfoils,
294
sweep angle impact on,
317
Crosswind
capability at touch-down,
78
snow bank collision effect,
85
Cruise lift coefficient,
313
critical Mach numbers,
294
in terms of time of flight,
897f
with transposed axes,
897f
D
Delta wing planform,
340f
Density
of aviation gasoline,
187
Descent
Descent performance
descent analysis methods
airspeed of minimum sink rate,
931
equilibrium glide speed,
929
general angle-of-descent,
927
minimum angle-of-descent,
931,
932b
descent maneuver, fundamental relations,
926
general 2D free-body diagram for aircraft,
926–927
planar equations of motion,
927
Design airspeed for maximum gust intensity,
777
Design lift coefficient,
343
Design of experiments (DOE),
56,
69–72
Development program phase,
11
prevents rudder lock,
481f
reference geometry schematics for,
435f
Down-selection matrix,
309t
of aircraft by class,
752
characteristics of Gurney flap,
433f
correction for cockpit windows,
726
of landing gear pant fairings,
715
lift-Induced drag coefficient,
686–690
polar
of NACA series airfoils,
268f
simple wing-like surfaces,
715
skin friction drag coefficient,
675–679
of stopped propellers,
731
of streamlined struts,
715
total drag coefficient,
691
of windmilling propellers,
731
Droop nose leading edge,
See Hinged
E
Eastlake model
business aircraft, development cost,
44
certify, total cost to,
46
development support, total cost of,
45
engineering, total cost of,
45
engineering man-hours,
44–45
flight test operations, total cost of,
45
manufacturing, total cost of,
45
manufacturing labor man-hours,
45
materials, total cost of,
45–46
quality control, total cost of,
45
retractable landing gear cost,
46
tooling, total cost of,
45
GA aircraft, development cost,
37
break-even analysis,
43,
44b
development support, total cost of,
39–40
engineering, total cost of,
39
engineering man-hours,
37–38
flight test operations, total cost of,
40
manufacturing, total cost of,
40
manufacturing labor man-hours,
38–39
materials, total cost of,
40
product liability costs,
37
quality Control, total cost of,
40
retractable landing gear cost,
41
tooling, total cost of,
40
Electric
Elliptic wing planform,
331
Endurance performance,
897
Endurance Profile 2, ,
912
Endurance Profile 3, ,
913
manifold pressure and RPM effect,
195–196
temperature effect on,
195
Engineering
Engineering reports,
30–32
Equation of motion (EOM),
802
for descent maneuver,
822
Equilibrium glide speed,
929
Equivalent airspeed,
47,
770
Equivalent horsepower (EHP),
185
Exit
Experience effectiveness,
36,
36f
F
Famous airfoils
supercritical airfoils,
274
business aircraft certification,
44
fire extinguishing systems,
523
GA aircraft certification,
requirements for T-O speeds,
800–801
restrictions for aircraft classes certification,
4t
Subpart E–Powerplant,
209
Feathering propeller,
586
Features and Upgradability,
Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), ,
13,
99
Federal Aviation Regulations (FAR),
13
Finite element analysis (FEA),
27–28
during design process,
21f
for preliminary airplane design,
19
propeller efficiency graph for,
632f
Flap
deflecting effect of,
284
Flap Extension airspeed,
782
trends for simple diffusers,
227f
Folding bull-nose Krüger flap leading edge,
411
aerodynamic properties,
432
Free roll
Free-body
Frustum
frustum-shaped fuselage,
523
piston engine installation,
210–213
Fuel consumption
aspirated piston engines,
192t
comparable turbofan aircraft,
495
Fuel weight
Justification for maximum zero,
136f
Fuselage geometry
surface areas and volumes,
544
Fuselage internal dimensions,
531–532
external shape
internal dimensions of fuselage,
531–532
Fuselage width, height,
364
G
Gap
effect on magnitude,
420f
General Aviation aircraft
CG envelope for light,
169f
center of gravity travel during flight,
972
control system harmony,
968
control system jamming,
970
crosswind capability at touch-down,
965
drag estimation pitfalls,
972
ground impact resistance,
970
natural damping capability,
969
one-engine-inoperative trim and climb capability,
969
reliance upon analysis technology,
971–972
stall margin for horizontal tail,
967
take-off rotation capability,
966
trim at stall and flare at landing capability,
966
weight estimation pitfalls,
972
wing/fuselage juncture flow separation,
972
General Aviation Manufacturers Association (GAMA),
34,
103
General process of aircraft design
elementary outline,
11–12
regulatory concepts
airworthiness directives,
14
maintenance requirements,
14
parts manufacturer approval,
15
special airworthiness certificate,
14
standard airworthiness certificate,
14
supplemental type certificate,
14
technical standard order,
15
Glass-transition temperature,
113
equilibrium glide speed,
929
transport efficiency,
877
Gross weight
using historical relations,
138–140
Ground adjustable propeller,
586
lift-induced drag correction in,
738–739
Ground fine, propeller,
586
Ground friction
ground roll friction coefficients,
554t
Ground impact resistance,
970
Ground roll, Take-Off,
800
Growth
features and upgradability,
flow separation on aircraft,
367–369
intermittent periods,
35f
NASA’s Glenn research center,
252
design cruising speed,
776
H
Handling requirements,
Helix
Helmholz’s vortex theorem,
381
High-wing
vortex-lattice model,
967f
pressure distribution,
242
aluminum semi-monocoque fuselage,
128
underlying fuselage structure,
129f
Horizontal tail (HT),
89,
460
impact on longitudinal trim,
289
initial tail sizing optimization,
503–509
Horizontal tail volume,
501
initial tail sizing optimization,
503–509
on location of stick-fixed neutral point,
502f
constant-pitch propeller,
590
correction parameter calculation,
655
Hybrid electric aircraft,
206
Hydrostatic stability, ,
764
I
Important elements of new aircraft design,
237–238
aircraft design process phases,
241
ease of manufacturing,
239
features and upgradability,
239–240
integrated product teams,
241
lean engineering and lean manufacturing,
241
performance requirements and sensitivity,
239
post-development programs,
243
Incidence angle
Incompressible Bernoulli equation,
246
selection of tire sizes,
555
for typical aircraft,
557t
Initial weight
Initial weight estimation,
134
Inlet
inlet types for jet engines,
223–224
inlet-radiator-exit method,
217–219
Inlet-Radiator-Exit method,
217–219
Installation
aircraft power plant,
209
danger zones around propeller aircraft,
210
piston engine inlet and exit sizing,
213–219
piston engine installation,
210–213
turboprop on agricultural aircraft,
196f
Insurance
annual insurance cost,
47
Integrated Product Teams (IPT),
Inverted gull-wing dihedral,
87
J
Jet A, Jet A-1, Jet B, TS-1,
188t
K
Kinematic viscosity
dynamic viscosity,
derivation of equation,
560
Knots
Knots calibrated airspeed (KCAS),
740
Knots equivalent airspeed (KEAS),
775
design maneuvering speed,
777
Knots ground speed (KGS),
557t,
768
Knots indicated airspeed (KIAS),
769
Knots true airspeed (KTAS),
740
L
boundary layer transition,
248
leading edge to force,
250
Landing wire bracing,
724
Lapse rate
atmospheric ambient temperature,
763–764
temperature constants,
764t
Lateral directional stability,
462–483
Lateral stability
directional and roll stability derivatives,
478t
slipping or sideslip,
475
Leading edge extension,
302
Leading edge radius
flow over an object with,
249f
flight envelope for,
881f
Lift
airfoil stall characteristics,
251
angle-of-attack at zero lift,
240
compound tapered planform,
335
compressibility effect on,
278
and drag,
Kutta-Joukowski circulation theorem,
246–247
lift coefficient of minimum drag,
241
maximum lift coefficient,
66
performance efficiency,
56
Reynolds number effect,
276f
SAS,
section lift coefficient,
239
smeaton lift equation,
239
Lift Bernoulli theorem,
246
comparison of section,
331f
maximum
for desired stalling speed,
66
gap effect on magnitude,
420f
maximum theoretical lift coefficient,
276–277
standard lift curve graphs,
276
impact of sweep angle on,
318
wide-range lift curve,
344
Lift curve
airfoil stall characteristics,
251
derivation of equation,
346
flap effect to airfoil on,
285f
NACA series airfoils,
268f
Reynolds number effect on,
276f
three-dimensional wing,
343
Lift distribution
drag due to wing washout,
736
ideal, actual and wasted,
329f
methods to present spanwise,
331–332
un-flexed and flexed wings,
350f
Lift distribution with flaps deflected,
336
Lift Kutta-Joukowski circulation theorem,
606–607
Lift-induced drag
corrections
using lifting-line method,
689
Oswald span efficiency,
363
Prandtl-Betz integration,
690
using lifting-line method,
689
Prandtl-Betz integration,
690
Lift-to-drag ratio
maximum
graphical determination,
673f
for modern sailplanes and powered sailplanes,
316f
performance efficiency,
56
Light sport aircraft (LSA),
establishing weight ratios for,
139t
Longitudinal static stability,
463–466
M
effect on lift and drag,
278f
effect on pitching moment,
280f
Macro-and micromechanics,
109
Main landing gear
structural capabilities,
170
Maintainability,
laminar boundary layer,
676
Maintenance requirements,
14
Manhours
for engineering development,
number of engineering,
37–38
number of manufacturing labor,
38–39
number of tooling,
38,
45
Manufacturing labor
number of man-hours,
38–39
Materials
aircraft fabrication and,
98–115
aircraft construction methodologies,
114
glass transition temperature,
113
sandwich core materials,
113
technical standard order,
15
Max zero fuel weight,
135
Maximum landing weight,
135
Maximum lift coefficient
for desired stalling speed,
66
gap effect on magnitude,
420f
maximum theoretical lift coefficient,
276–277
standard lift curve graphs,
276
impact of sweep angle on,
318
Maximum operating airspeed,
787–789
Mean Geometric Chord (MGC),
84
Cirrus SR22 properties,
784t
y-value computation for,
259
Mid-wing
Minimum angle-of-descent,
931
Minimum control airspeed,
601
Minimum lift coefficient,
239,
343
Minimum power required airspeed,
864–867
Minimum unstick airspeed,
183
Mission definition, ,
78–79
Mission definition,
Moment of inertia
parallel-axis theorem,
156
system of discrete point loads,
167–168
Mono-wheel
landing gear with outriggers,
571
Multi-disciplinary optimization (MDO),
56
Munk-Multhopp method,
473
N
NACA 8-series airfoil,
267
NACA airfoil
propeller configurations,
584
strake on Airbus A319 commercial jetliner,
981f
twin-engine turboprop aircraft,
90
Natural Laminar Flow (NLF),
665
quadratic drag model,
668
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), ,
763
chordwise distribution for,
243f
composite sandwich construction,
119
pressure-recovery region,
526
square trailing edge,
257
Noise
Non-Conventional aircraft,
3t
Normal Category
applicable properties,
775t
propeller normal and side force,
598–599
Nose landing gear
geometric definitions,
552f
NRLMSISE-00,
Numerical integration method
equation of take-off motion
closed-form integration,
807
ground run analysis,
810t
propeller thrust at low airspeeds,
807–808
O
Oleo-strut landing gear,
564f
Operational cost
aircraft estimation
manufacturing and selling airplanes,
46
annual insurance cost,
49
maintenance to flight hour ratio,
49
annual inspection cost,
47
annual insurance cost,
47
maintenance to flight hour ratio,
46–47
Optimum glide in headwind or tailwind,
770–771
Optimum glide in rising air,
778–779
Optimum glide in sinking air,
778–779
Oswald’s span efficiency
aerodynamic properties calculation,
67
straight wings, empirical estimation for,
363
swept wings, empirical estimation for,
363–364
lift-induced drag coefficient,
314–315
Outrigger
monowheel landing gear with,
571
Overhaul
annual insurance cost,
49
P
Parasol wing location,
82–86
consolidated PBY-5 Catalina,
85f
lower lift-induced drag,
86
Parts manufacturer approval (PMA),
15
aircraft performance,
762
payload-range sensitivity study,
919–921
Payload-range
NBAA payload-range sensitivity plot,
920f
Performance chart
piston-engine performance chart,
229f
Philosophy of design,
airspeed effect on engine power,
192
altitude effect on engine power,
192–195
common fuel grades for,
188t
compression and pressure ratios,
192
energy content of fuel for,
187
four-stroke engine operation,
191
types of engine mounts,
212
manifold pressure and RPM effect on,
195–196
power plant thermodynamics,
183
specific fuel consumption for,
192
temperature effect on engine power,
195
two-stroke versus four-stroke engines,
190–191
Piston engine exit
inlet-exit-dependent heat transfer,
215–216
inlet-radiator-exit method,
217–219
inlet-exit-dependent heat transfer,
215–216
inlet-radiator-exit method,
217–219
pusher configurations,
213
for selected aircraft,
215f
tractor and pusher aircraft configurations,
213
updraft or a downdraft methodology,
213
Pitching